GARDENING 



FO 



THE SOUTH 



OR HOW TO GROW 
FRUITS & VEGETABLES 



BYVSLN.VHITE 
Revised by PH. MELL, FhM 




Class 
Book. 









\ \ 5% 



Copyright N°_ H>l 



COPYRrGHT DEPOSIT. 



1061 




Mr*,. </k trfatc 



Gardening for the South; 



OR, 



HOW TO GROW ^^^^^^^^^ 
VEGETABLES AND FRUITS. 



BY THE LATE 

W 1 L L I A M X. WHIT E, 

OF ATHENS. GA. 



THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 



...BY... 

P. H. M E L L , Ph. D., 

Professor of Botany and Geology, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Director of Alabama 
Agricultural Experiment Station. 



WITH MANY ILLUSTRATIONS. 



RICHMOND, VIRGINIA: 



B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING COMPANY. 
lQOl. 



THE LIBRARY OF 

CONGRESS, 
Two Cof>its Received 

JUL. 8 1901 

COPVBIGMT ENTHV 

EfLASS CM<Xe. N» 
COPY B. 



Copyright, 1901, 
By P. H. MELL, Ph. D. 






•~uo\ 



CONTENTS. 



What Science Has Done for Gardening, 
Preface to the First Edition, 
Preface to the Second Edition, 
Preface to the Third Edition, 

CHAPTER I. 
Formation and Management of Gardens in General, 

CHAPTER II. 

Soils — Their Characteristics, 

CHAPTER III. 
The Improvement of the Soil, . . 

CHAPTER IV. 
Fertilizers and Manures, .... 

CHAPTER V. 
Rotation of Crops, .... 

CHAPTER VI. 
Hot Beds, Cold Frames, Pits and Greenhouses, 

CHAPTER VII. 
Packing and Marketing the Crop, 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Insects, Fungi and Plant Diseases, 

CHAPTER IX. 
Propagation of Plants, .... 

CHAPTER X. 
Budding and Grafting, .... 

CHAPTER XL 
Pruning and Training, .... 



PAGE 

13 
19 
23 
25 

27 

39 

45 

51 

80 



99 



107 



186 



211 



222 



4 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER XII. 

Transplanting, . . ., „ , , » 235 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Mulching, Shading and Watering, « • 241 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Protection from Frost, « 254 

CHAPTER XV. 

Vegetables — Varieties, Description and Culture, . ■ . 261 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Fruits — Varieties, Description and Culture, • « 456 

CHAPTER XVII. 
Tables and Useful Formulee, ...... 646 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



What Science Has Done for Gardening. 



No one profession can stand alone without the support 
and help of other allied callings. The man who says 
that he can successfully conduct a market garden, or a 
farm, without the assistance of scientific thought and 
investigation is not well informed as to how much he is 
really dependent on what science has done, and is doing, 
for his profession. If he says that he has no patience 
with " book farming," and attempts to conduct his busi- 
ness with methods and implements in use fifty years 
ago, and declines to read and keep up with the progress 
of the times, he will soon find to his sorrow that his 
neighbors who do read and profit by what intelligent 
investigation is bringing to light, are far outstripping 
him in the improvement of their gardens and in the 
profits they are reaping by placing on the markets early 
vegetables and fruits. 

This is the age of the printing press and thousands of 
thoughtful, earnest investigators are sending out by its 
means vast stores of valuable, practical information to 
him who will read and profit thereby. Practical men 
and women must read and learn what the rest of the 
world is doing if they expect to keep up with the pro- 
gress of events. The competition in all departments of 
tilling the soil is now so great, that the most successful 
gardener or farmer is that man who not only accumu- 
lates books, but also is a diligent reader and a student 
in his profession, always looking out for new and 
improved ideas to enable him to produce the best and 
largest crop possible on his land with the least amount 



14 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

of money and expenditure of labor. This chapter is 
not written for such wide-awake people, but it is pre- 
pared with the hope that the few who still condemn 
"book learning" may be convinced by argument and a 
presentation of an overwhelming array of facts that they 
are under great obligations to the results of the work 
and thought of scientific investigators. 

It is .due entirely to science that the insect enemies 
of vegetables and fruits have been so carefully cata- 
logued and described, and remedies discovered for 
destroying them and holding them in check. Millions of 
dollars have been saved to the gardener and the farmer 
in this one item of contribution from science. The inves- 
tigations made on the subject of plant disease and the 
remedies used to keep the plant in a healthy condition are 
the work alone of scientific brain and energy. The eradi- 
cation of many of these troubles has made it possible for 
the gardener to cultivate certain vegetables and fruits 
which was next to impossible prior to the assistance 
rendered by the scientific investigator. What a boon to 
the cultivator of the soil is spraying! Yet scientific ex- 
perimentation developed the spraying machine and the 
composition of the ingredients which make up the spray- 
ing mixtures. 

The introduction of many of the best fruits and vege- 
tables is largely due to the effort and forethought of our 
scientific men. The delightful Japan plums, the Japan 
persimmons, the many varieties of the citrus fruits, and 
the great improvement of the grape are well known 
illustrations of this fact. 

Chemistry, among many other aids it has rendered to 
the gardener and the farmer, must be given full credit for 
placing the science of fertilization in the front rank of 
important factors. How crude and unsatisfactory were 
the methods of supplying plant food to the soil until the 



WHAT SCIENCE HAS DONE FOK GARDENING. 15 

commercial fertilizers were given to the agricultural 
world, and the fraud in the manufacture was eliminated 
by the analytical skill of the chemist. A few years ago 
the terms phosphoric acid and potash were known and 
understood by a few, but now they are common words 
in the vocabulary of the most ordinary gardener and the 
most obscure farmer. And yet this is the work of the 
chemist, and to him only must the gardener render 
thanks for the great benefits accruing to the land and 
plant in the use of fertilizers. 

The improvement of the soil by cultivating leguminous 
plants in order to accumulate nitrogen from the atmos- 
phere is a well-known fact, but the discovery of the germ 
principle, by which the plants have the power to extract 
this nitrogen from the air, was made in the laboratory of 
a German scientific investigator. Because of this dis- 
covery it is now possible to successfully cultivate peas, 
beans, clovers and other similar plants in localities where 
before the discovery of this germ principle it was next to 
impossible to secure satisfactory results. 

Science has even stepped in to instruct on the subject 
of the cultivation of the soil, and much that is now 
known ou this question is due to the investigations con- 
ducted at the State Experiment Stations under the 
direction of men with scientific training on such subjects 
as: (1) Why shallow plowing should be resorted to in the 
cultivation of certain plants which develop a large system 
of surface roots; (2) under what conditions deep plowing 
should be done, and (3) why the land should not be plowed 
while in a wet condition; (4) the value of rest to the land, 
and (5) the rotation of crops. 

Most that is known in reference to irrigation and the 
value it is to those sections of the country where long, 
dry seasons are common must be credited to scientific 
research. Irrigation has made it possible to reclaim land 



16 GAKDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 

which was formerly a barren waste and make it produce 
in abundance many of the plants beneficial to man. 

To the list of benefits conferred on the gardener by 
the scientific student must be added the power to repro- 
duce our finest fruits by grafting and budding, making 
it possible to perpetuate the tree that has been improved 
to the point of maturing excellent fruit some time before 
fruit will ripen on the ordinary tree under the usual 
conditions. The great strides made in the selection of 
vegetable seeds, so that the purest seed and the most 
healthy plants may be secured, must be credited to the 
United States Department of Agriculture through the 
painstaking efforts of its scientific workers. The develop- 
ment of new and improved varieties of plants by crossing 
and 03^ hybridization could only be possible through the 
intelligent experiments of a mind fully cognizant of the 
scientific laws governing the growth and the develop- 
ment of flowers and seeds. In this connection may be 
mentioned as a matter of illustration the splendid work 
accomplished by T. V. Munson, of Texas, and others in 
increasing the number of fine new grapes and extending 
the list of this* delightful fruit. Within very recent times 
the United States Department of Agriculture has suc- 
ceeded in producing by hybridization hardy orange 
plants, so that it is now possible to develop this fruit 
as far north as Southern Georgia with safety, and the 
indications seem to point to the chance of growing this 
plant as far north as Augusta, Georgia, without fear of 
destruction during our ordinary winters. Some of these 
hybrids are now growing in the horticultural grounds of 
the Alabama Experiment Station at Auburn, and the 
experiment will be made during the coming winter to 
continue the growth without any more protection than 
is usually given to peach trees, with the hope that the 
experiment will be successful. 



WHAT SCIENCE HAS DONE FOE GARDENING. 17 

In the matter of frost warnings to the market 
gardeners it will be interesting to know how much 
money is saved annually in the timely warnings from the 
Weather Bureau at Washington of the approach of cold 
waves, so that the delicate plants might be protected ; 
and yet this is the work from its inception of scientific 
thought and under the management of scientific ob- 
servers, 

Again, in the improvement of the implements used 
to-day in the garden and on the farm, how much of the 
energy of the tiller is economized with such satisfactory 
results in the character of the work accomplished, and 
who will say that these improved machines and tools are 
not the outcome of careful training in scientific methods, 
with a knowledge of the principles controlling physical 
and mechanical laws? In the evolution of the modern 
plow from its primitive ancestor the wooden beam; the 
improved Planet, Jr., cultivator, with its many con- 
venient tools w r hen compared with the old-style hoe 
and rake; these, with many other improved tools that 
might be mentioned, should convince any one of the great 
assistance science is rendering the tiller of the soil in 
simply this one branch. 

The United States Department of Agriculture has 
spent millions of money in the past years for the benefit 
of the gardener and the farmer. It is certainly true that 
no one is prepared to say that this wealth has been 
thrown away, and that the agriculturist has not been 
vastly benefited by its expenditure in his behalf. The 
work of this great department has been almost entirely 
in the hands of scientific men of well-known ability; and 
thousands of pages of practical information and con- 
tributions to knowledge have come from their efforts, 
attesting the great value of their investigations to the 
"man with the hoe." , 



18 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

The State Experiment Stations have been in existence 
only twelve years, and yet in that short time the re- 
searches made by the scientific staff have introduced 
new methods of planting and cultivating which the 
gardeners have found superior to those in practice before 
the establishment of these stations. The hundreds of 
bulletins treating of every subject relating to plant 
growth and animal economy are in growing demand, and 
they are being read by thousands of people interested in 
the farm and the garden who uttered anything else but 
a kind word in behalf of the stations when Congress 
made the appropriation for their maintenance in 1887. 

The foregoing argument in defence of the position that 
science has rendered incalculable service to the gardener 
is sufficient justification for the reappearance of this book, 
and the hope is entertained that the work will receive a 
hearty welcome among those for whom it was written. 



Preface to the First Edition. 



I have thought that, upon a subject so accordant with 
my tastes as is horticulture, I might prepare a work 
adapted to our climate and useful to the public. The 
repeated inquiries made of me, as a bookseller, for a 
practical treatise on the subject, and these inquiries 
growing - more frequent with the manifest growth of the 
gardening spirit among us, led to the undertaking. Yet, 
written as it has been, in the intervals of trade and sub- 
jected to its constant interruptions — now advancing bat 
a line at once, again a page, or an article — suspended 
totally for nearly two years, then hastily finished, looked 
over, and printed under circumstances that rendered the 
author's revision of the proof impossible — many defects 
of style, and errors of the press, are manifest. These, if 
the work contain the information sought, practical men 
will readily excuse in a first edition. 

To claim much originality in a modern work on garden- 
ing would display in its author great ignorance or great 
presumption. If it did not contain much that is found in 
other horticultural works, it would be very defective. 
Gardening is as old as Adam, and what we know to-day 
of its principles and operations has been accumulated, 
little by little — the result of thousands of experiments 
and centuries of observation and practice. Hence, from 
the gardening literature of our language, have been se- 
lected, for this work, those modes of culture which consid- 
erable experience and observation have proved adapted 
to our climate. The species and varieties of plants found 
here most desirable for use or ornament have been se- 
lected and described. This mass of material has been 



20 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 

modified and increased by pretty copious garden-notes of 
my own. Still, it lias been my object to make a useful 
and reliable, rather than an original work. Where an 
author's language suited my purpose, it was at once in- 
corporated into the text. If the expression is sometimes 
changed, it is generally to make it more concise. * * * 

The necessity of a Southern work on gardening is felt 
by every horticulturist in our midst. Our seasons differ 
from those of the Northern States in heat and dryness, as 
much as the latter do from those of England. Treatises 
perfectly adapted to their climate we are obliged to fol- 
low very cautiously. English works require the exercise 
of a still greater degree of judgment in the reader, the 
climate of England being still more cool and humid. 
Again, our mild winters admit of garden work nearly 
every day of the year. All the heavy operations of trench- 
ing, manuring, laying out, pruning, and planting trees, 
shrubs, and hardy ornamental plants, are at that season 
most conveniently performed. In this particular aspect 
our climate is much like that of the south of England. 
Hence, while the calendars of operations, in works pre- 
pared for the Northern States, seldom agree with our 
practice, those in English works are often found to coin- 
cide with it. But even where the time of performing cer- 
tain operations is the same in both countries, the long, 
dry summers, and still milder winters of this climate, 
often render necessary a peculiar mode of performing 
the same. 

We need, then, works upon gardening specially adapted 
to our latitude and wants. But with the exception of the 
valuable matter scattered through our agricultural and 
horticultural periodicals, Holmes' "Southern Farmer and 
Market Gardener," written some years since, and briefly 
treating of the kitchen garden department merely, is the 
only work containing anything reliable on the subject. 



PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 21 

The chief original features, then, of this work are, that 
it endeavors to give more or less information upon the 
whole subject of gardening; and information, too, that is 
practically adapted to our climate, habits, and require- 
ments. In the fruit garden department, especially, a good 
deal of new matter is to be found. Throughout the entire 
work processes are frequently described, and methods of 
culture given, which are suited only to climates and 
seasons like our own. Those varieties of plants and trees 
are pointed out which experience has proved are best 
adapted to our orchards and gardens. * * * * 

Unusual prominence is also given to the general sub- 
ject of manures, as the}- are the foundation not only of 
successful gardening, but of profitable husbandry. 
Besides the various works consulted, the experience of 
horticultural friends has been freely communicated. 
Valuable hints have been derived from Rev. Mr. Johnson 
and Mr. Thurmond, of Atlanta; Professor J. P. Waddel, 
Dr. M. A. Ward, and Dr. James Camak, of Athens; Right 
Rev. Bishop Elliott, of Savannah; Dr. J. C. Jenkyns and 
Mr. Affleck, of Mississippi; and especially from J. Tan 
Buren, of Clarksville, Georgia, whose successful efforts 
to make known and diffuse native Southern varieties of 
the apple rendered him a public benefactor. It is hoped 
we shall yet see a work on fruit trees from his pen. 

If this treatise, with all its imperfections, shall in any 
degree increase the love of gardening among us; if it 
shall cause orchards to flourish, shade trees to embower, 
and flowers to spring up around any Southern home, the 
author's purpose is accomplished. 

Wm. N. White. 

Athens, (la., 1856. 



Preface to the Second Edition. 



The revised edition of "Gardening for the South" was 
mainly prepared by our lamented friend, W. N. White, 
the author of the first edition, whose sudden death left 
the work in an incomplete state. At his special request, 
made while on his death-bed, we have undertaken to 
finish the work begun by him, to the best of our ability, 
and while we do so, we ask the indulgence of the reader 
to pass over and forgive any imperfections he may detect, 
for we feel conscious of our inability to present to the 
public as perfect and interesting a work as would have 
been done had the author been permitted to have 
finished it. 

The necessity for a new and revised edition must be 
apparent to every reader, as the former edition was pub- 
lished in 1856; since which time the discoveries, improve- 
ments, and progress in Agriculture and Horticulture have 
been very great. 

Ten years' additional experience in Agriculture and 
Horticulture by the talented author of the firsl edition is 
our warrant for recommending the present work to the 
favor of the public, as few men were more ardently 
devoted to the culture of the soil than he was. 

Should opinious and facts be found stated in the 
present work at variance with those in the former edition 
it will be attributed to the experience alluded to above, 
for with him it was always a pleasure to acknowledge an 
error when it w r as found to be such. Many and valuable 
additions have been made to all the departments, and 
more particularly to the lists of varieties, both of vege- 



24 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

tables and fruits, together with the improved methods of 
cultivation, as the object of the author was to present to 
the public a practical work adapted to the soil and 
climate of the Southern States. 

J. Van Buren, 
Dr. Jas. Camak. 
Athens, Ga., 1868. 



Preface to the Third Edition. 



It has been thirty years since the last edition of this 
important work was issued, and such great changes 
have taken place in all departments of horticulture 
within this period that a new edition of the book has been 
long demanded. 

Many varieties of vegetables and fruits now popular in 
the South were unknown twenty years ago, and some 
that were cultivated in those days have been supplanted 
by other varieties of superior quality. The character and 
composition of fertilizers have also undergone great 
changes, and remarkable advancement has been made 
by the introduction of the numerous brands of commer- 
cial manures. Certain methods of cultivation also differ- 
ing from those in practice some years ago have become 
popular, and are now in general use throughout the 
country. 

A great impetus has been given to gardening in the 
South by the many excellent bulletins which have been 
issued from the Experiment Stations of the several States 
on the subjects of botany and horticulture, so that the 
science of cultivating the fruits and vegetables has 
become almost a new profession. The man who is now 
guided by a book written twenty or thirty years ago will 
be far behind the times in nearly all departments of 
planting and cultivating. 

For these reasons there has been a demand for many 
years on the part of the people of the South for a revision 
of White's Gardening. 

In rewriting the book liberal use has been made of the 



26 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

bulletins of the Agricultural Experiment Stations, the 
publications of the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, botanical, horticultural and agricultural magazines 
and papers and standard works on gardening. Some of 
the illustrations have been culled, with the consent of 
the authors, from the publications of P. J. Berckmans, 
L. H. Bailey, G. F. Atkinson, F. V. Coville, H. N. Starnes, 
R. L. Watts, Peter Henderson, Samuel H. Rumph, John- 
son & Stokes, George L. Taber, and Vaughan Seed Com- 
pany. To Professor F. S. Earle, biologist and horticul- 
turist of the Alabama. Experiment Station, special 
acknowledgment is made for suggestive and valuable 
criticisms. 

P. H. Mell. 
Auburn Alabama, January, 1901. 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



CHAPTER I. 



FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS IN GENERAL. 

Situation. — The situation of the flower garden and 
lawn should be immediately adjacent to the dwelling, in 
order to yield the highest degree of pleasure. The most 
satisfactory arrangement is to form the lawn directly in 
front, and the flower garden on the side, sufficiently near 
to be overlooked by the drawing-room windows, while 
the sides of the dwelling, in part, and its entire rear, in- 
cluding the kitchen and servants' yard, are sheltered and 
concealed by trees. A dwelling thus embowered in well- 
grown trees is always regarded with pleasure. As neither 
the fruit or kitchen garden, especially the latter, can be 
considered ornamental, they should not, though near the 
dwelling, be placed obtrusively in view. Near they should 
be, for if either is distant, time is lost in watching its 
progress; it is in danger of being neglected; and even if 
this is not the case, its choicest products may gratify the 
palate of any one besides its owner. A good arrange- 
ment is to place them in immediate connection with the 
pleasure-ground, proceeding from the shrubbery to the 
fruit department, and thence to the kitchen garden. The 
latter should also have an independent approach. It 
should be near the stables, in order that it may be 
copiously replenished with manure without too much 
labor. 

Much, however, depends upon the soil. The best at 



28 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

command, in the vicinity of the dwelling, should be 
chosen. Proximity to water is also highly important, 
especially if it can be readily employed for irrigation. 
Low situations are more liable to late and early frosts, 
but their abundant moisture renders them desirable for 
summer crops. A diversity of soils and exposures in the 
same inclosure is desirable. 

Care should be taken that the productiveness of the 
kitchen garden be not diminished by the proximity of 
large trees, which are injurious by their drip to all plants 
beneath them, and by their shade and extended roots to 
those more remote. The small, fibrous roots of trees 
extend far beyond their branches, and one is not safe 
from these devourers much short of the length of the 
stem which they nourish. If trees exist too valuable to 
be removed, dig a deep trench near them, and cut off all 
roots that extend into it. This will probably relieve the 
adjacent crops from their injurious effects. 

Aspect and Inclination. — A light exposure to the 
south is generally to be recommended. Gardeners take 
pride in having early crops, and this compensates in some 
measure for their shorter duration in such an exposure. 
A northeastern aspect is to be avoided, as our worst 
storms are from that direction. A northwestern exposure, 
though cold and late, is less liable to injury from late and 
early frosts, as vegetation in such situations is sheltered 
somewhat from the rising sun, and does not suffer so 
much if it becomes slightly frozen. It is not the frost that 
injures plants so much as the direct heat of the sun fall- 
ing upon the frozen leaves and blossoms. Hence an 
easterly aspect is generally objectionable for tender 
plants. 

Cabbage, cauliflower, strawberries, spinach, lettuce, 
and other salads are much more easily brought to perfec- 
tion in a northern aspect. Many of these run up to seed 



FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS. 29 

immediately if exposed to the full sun. Of fruit trees the 
apple succeeds well ou a northern slope. The soil, too, is 
usually richer, and will retain its fertility longer, other 
things being equal, in such an exposure. It is a great 
advantage, if the garden slope at all, to have it slope in 
more than one direction, thus giving a choice of exposure, 
and generally also of soil, as it is thereby adapted to both 
late and early crops. But when the drainage is good, a 
level is to be preferred, as by the aid of the fences any 
desired exposure can be obtained for particular plants. 
Indeed, in southern climates nothing after quality is more 
to be regarded than the inclination of the soil. 

Whatever be the situation or aspect, a garden must be 
as level as possible. Any considerable inclination in a 
southern latitude subjects the richest portion of the soil 
to the danger of being washed away by its violent storms. 
In the rich, mellow soil of a garden cultivated as it should 
be, if there be much perceptible slope, a single storm will 
often cause a loss of manure and labor that will require 
considerable expense to repair. If the ground is not level 
at first, it is necessary to resort to hillside ditching or to 
throw it at once into terraces of convenient breadth. To 
do this the eye cannot be trusted; a levelling instrument 
is required. The steeps of these can be clothed with 
Kentucky or Texas blue grass, or strawberry plants, to 
prevent them from washing. 

Each terrace must be so raised just at its edge, that it 
will retain all the water which falls upon it, permitting 
none to flow over even in the heaviest storms. Any excess 
of water should be carried off by proper underdrains, if 
needed, and not suffered to run off the surface. Surface 
ditches are a poor substitute. Terracing is not very 
expensive. The horizontal line is first determined with a 
level and staked off. A few turns of the plow are made 
on the hillside just below the stakes, and the earth 



30 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

thrown up with a shovel to the staked line. If more earth 
is required, the plowing and shovelling- must be repeated 
until a sufficient bank is formed to retain the water. 
During the first year, occasional breaks in the bank may 
happen from violent storms, but if well repaired, after 
the banks become settled, they will rarely be broken over 
by the accumulation of water, particularly if proper 
imderdrains or surface ditches are provided. 

Size. — A garden should be proportioned to the size of 
the family, and their partiality for its different products. 
A small garden with a suitable rotation of crops, and well 
manured and cultivated, will yield more pleasure and 
profit than au ordinary one of three times its size. An 
active, industrious hand can take care of an acre, pro- 
vided with necessary hot-beds, cold-frames, etc., keeping 
it in perfect neatness and condition; or if the plow and 
cultivator be brought into requisition, as they should be 
in large gardens, four times that amount can be under 
his care, provided there is not much under glass. 

If but little room can be allowed near the house, cab- 
bages, carrots, turnips, potatoes, and the common crops, 
can be grown in the field, if well enriched, and be culti- 
vated mainly with the plow. The fruit garden should be 
in a separate department, as the shade of the trees is 
very injurious, and the exhaustion of the soil by their 
roots still more so. Moreover, the heavy manuring r a - 
quired for the vegetables will not do so well for fiv 
culture. The trees will also be in the way of the cultiva- 
tors used in working the vegetables. Dwarf pears upon 
the quince stock are the least hurtful, and may be ad- 
mitted into the vegetable department along the walks. 

Form. — The form will often depend upon the situation 
of the garden or the inclination of the ground. When 
a matter of choice, a square or parallelogram is most 
convenient for laying out the walks and beds. A parallelo- 



FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS. 



31 



gram extending- from east to west gives a long south wall 
for shading plants in summer, and a long, sheltered bor- 




Fig. 1— Garden Plan. 

der for forwarding early crops. An oblong shape has the 
further advantage of giving longer rows for the plow or 
cultivator. 



32 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



Laying Out. — A convenient plan is given in Figure 1. 
The borders aa should be amply wide, in large gardens 
as much as twelve feet. The space b is laid out for the 
asparagus bed; c the cold-frames; d the hot-beds (in those 
sections of the South where needed); c the tool-house; 
h may be used for grapes, an arbor or a fountain as de- 
sired. The remainder of the space is taken up with walks 
and the plots //. The walks next the boundaries should 
not be less than four and a half feet in width. The long- 
central walk should be at least five or six feet wide, so as 
to admit a cart. In this case the main walk should pro- 
ceed, as in the figure, from t 1 - entrance to near the far- 
ther border, where a portion should be taken off of the 
adjacent plots to form a circular turning place for the 
cart and other vehicles brought into the garden. Plows 
are used so much in the cultivation of the garden that 
it is best to make the plots // without the usual cross 
walks. In this case the borders should be made of suffi- 
cient width to give room enough for all those vegetables 
which will not permit cultivation with the plow. Where 
only the spade and hoe are used, in quite small gardens, 
the plots // may be subdivided into smaller ones by walks 
three to four and a half feet wide, extending from the 
borders to the main walk; and a portion of these plots 
should be laid out each year in beds four feet wide for 
onions, beets, carrots, etc. The earth should be dug out of 
the main walks four inches deep and spread evenly on 
each side over the adjacent ground. These walks may be 
covered with' gravel, so that they will be kept dry and 
attractive; or fresh tan-bark, if the garden is located 
convenient to a tanning establishment, may be used in- 
stead of the gravel. The bark will keep out the weeds 
for two years, when it should be used as a dressing for 
the strawberry beds, and its place filled with a fresh sup- 



FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS. 



33 



ply. No more alleys and walks should be made than are 
required for convenience in the gardening operations. 

Figure 2 is another design for a vegetable garden with 
the fruit orchard and ornamental grounds attached. This 
plan was adapted for this book by the permission of the 
editor of "American Garden." 




Fig. 2 — General Plan of Grounds. Adapted from "American 
Garden," July, 1894. 

Box is the best edging wherever it succeeds, which it 
does admirably throughout most of the South. All main 
walks should be wide enough for two persons to walk 
abreast, for which not less than four and a half feet are 
required. 

Planting vegetables for market requires a slight 
3 



34: GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

alteration in the plan proposed for the home supply. In 
this case, of course, the planting should be on a large 
scale, and the vegetables should be arranged in long 
rows or drills, so as to permit of cultivation with the 
horse and plow. There is not much attention paid to 
laying out walks and dividing the land up into systematic 
and permanent plots, as in the case of the home garden, 
but vegetables of the same kind are planted together in 
the most convenient form for easy cultivation and har- 
vesting. In all other respects, however, the rules govern- 
ing one apply with equal force to the other method of 
gardening. In harvesting and preparing the vegetables 
for market the reader is referred to the chapter devoted 
to that subject. 

Fencing. — The objects of fencing are to procure shelter 
for delicate plants from cold winds, also shade for those 
that require it, and, above all, to keep out of the garden 
intruders of all kinds, that the owner may enjoy its fruits 
without molestation. A high, close board fence, or a stone 
or brick wall, tolerably answers the purpose; but the only 
thing to be relied on is a living hedge. The Osage Orange, 
the Pyracanth, the Cherokee and single White Macartney 
roses thrive in the South, and are all good for this pur- 
pose. Osage Orange plauts may be raised from seed, or 
bought at the nurseries. The Pyracanth, or Evergreen 
Thorn (Cratoegus pyracantha), will make a hedge as effect- 
ual as the Osage Orange, and, as it is an evergreen, is 
much the more desirable. The blossoms in spring are 
very show} 7 , and it is covered in winter with bright scarlet 
berries, and hence it is often called the Burning-bush. 
It grows freely from cuttings in sandy soil, but these 
cuttings should remain in the nursery-bed a 3 r ear, to 
become well rooted before use. Citrus trifoliata, or Japan 
Hardy Lemon, is considered by P. J. Berckmans as the 
coming hedge plant for defensive as well as ornamental 



FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS. 35 

purposes. It requires but little trimming after the third 
year. It makes an attractive appearance in spring by its 
numerous white flowers. Ligustrum amurense, or Privet, 
is another hedge plant that is well known for satisfactory 
results. Mr. Nelson gives the following directions for 
planting and trimming a hedge, which apply equally well 
to Osage Orange aud Pvracanth: 

"Planting. — First dig a trench where the hedge is 
intended to be grown, two spades deep, throwing the 
surface to one, and the subsoil to the other side; then 
throw the surface soil down on the bottom of the trench, 
aud if it is very poor, add a little manure, or good surface 
earth. Autumn is by far the best time for transplanting, 
and it can safely be done as soon as the leaves are 
dropped. Cut down the plants to within four inches 
above the roots before planting. Several authors recom- 
mend planting in double rows, but I decidedly prefer a 
single one. Assort the plants in two parcels, those of 
large and those of small size, and lay the smaller ones 
aside for the richest ground. Stretch the line firmly, and 
place the plants in as straight a line as possible, one foot 
apart; fill up the trench with earth, leaving about two 
inches above ground; press the earth not too firmly, but 
water plentifully, and after that, level the whole nicely. 

"Trimming. — It is perfectly useless to plant a hedge 
and leave it to be killed by weeds, or grow without trim- 
ming. A young hedge will require the same amount of 
labor as a row of Indian corn. 
The plants having been cut 
down so much, will, of course, 
start vigorously the ensuing 
spring. A good hedge ought 
never to be trimmed in any 

other than in a conical shape, Fig 3 _ Sectiuu of Hedg ^ 
as in Figure 3. When trim- 
med in a conical shape, every shoot will enjoy the full 




36 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

benefit of air, light, and moisture, and by this simple and 
natural method, a hedge can be shorn into a strong wall 
of verdure, so green and close from bottom to top, that even a 
sparrow cannot, without difficulty, pass through it. In order 
to make a hedge so thick and impervious as above men- 
tioned, it is necessary to go to work even in the first sum- 
mer, with a pair of hedge shears, pruning the young 
growth, when about three months old, at the same time 
laying down some of the most vigorous shoots to fill up 
any vacant places found near the ground. These shoots 
may be fastened to the ground with hooked pegs. They 
may be considered as layers, will soon send up a number 
of sprouts, making the hedge impenetrable for pigs, and 
nearly for rabbits. The young twigs may be trimmed in 
a wedge shape, not more than one foot high, and at the 
base six inches broad. The next season the hedge may 
be allowed to grow one foot higher, and three or four 
inches wider at the base. This pruning is most readily 
given with a reaping hook (a sharp sickle without teeth), 
making the cut with an upward stroke. Thus the man- 
agement must be continued until the hedge has attained 
the intended height, allowing an addition of four inches 
broader at the bottom for every foot more in height. A 
hedge, regularly trimmed twice a year — in June and 
November — with the exception of the first years, when 
it requires a little more care than afterward, will con- 
tinue impenetrable for fifty or even one hundred years." 
If cuttings of the Cherokee liose (Rosa loevigata) are 
planted by the side of a plank or wire fence, two feet 
apart, they will grow up and cover it in a short time, and- 
effectually repel man and beast; but the growth is so 
rampant that it requires constant shortening in. It is 
also apt to die out at the bottom and become unsightly, 
and is in all respects much inferior to the single white 
Macartney (Rosa uraetcata), an evergreen, and very easily 



FORMATION A2sD MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS. 



37 



grown from cuttings. The latter is very thorny, and of 
beautiful foliage. It never dies out at the bottom, whether 
pruned or not, and south of Virginia, is very hardy, and 
of luxuriant growth. A satisfactory fence can be made 
with this, by setting good chestnut or cedar posts, eight 
feet apart, planted about two and a half feet in the 
ground. Bank up the soil to form some twenty inches 
high along the line of the fence, then form the usual 
paling fence, or nail a good wide bottom board, and finish 
the feuce with heart-pine six-inch planks, or with stout 
wire, strained through holes in the posts. The wire fence 
may be four feet high. The roses should be rooted cut- 
tings, and may be planted at first, even eight feet apart, 
and by layering and training the bottom shoots, if the 
ground is kept in good order, in three years they will 
repel every intruder. It is better, where plants are abun- 
dant, to set them out four feet apart. This hedge requires 
less pruning than any other to keep it impenetrable. 
After the posts and slats have decayed, the bank itself, 
grown over with roses, will repel all intrusion. The 
roses should be set at about the original level of the 
ground, and not at the top of the bank. My own hedge 
of Macartney rose, when three years old, trained on a 
common fence of rails and paling, formed a barrier per- 
fectly secure, and very ornamental. I see but one objec- 
tion to it. It is in summer always in blossom, and there- 
fore attracts all the bees in the neighborhood. In my 
fruit garden I have thought that the injury done to 
peaches and grapes by wasps and bees has been much 
greater since the hedge has grown up than before. It is 
a fine bee plant. In a more northern climate the sweet- 
brier might answer as a tolerable substitute. 

The American Holly makes an efficient and beautiful 
hedge, but is slow of growth and very hard to transplant. 
It can, however, be safely planted by selecting a mild, 



38 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

cloudy day the last of February, or early in March, cut- 
ting off the top as directed above by Mr. Nelson for the 
Osage Orange, and exposing the roots meanwhile to the 
air as little as possible. Thousands of yards can be thus 
planted with little loss. 

For an ornamental hedge about a cemetery lot or else- 
where, the Irish Yew and the Tree Box are decidedly the 
best plants that can be used. The narrow-leaved variety 
of Tree Box grows naturally, just the right shape, and 
needs very little trimming after two or three years. The 
Yew likes shade. 

The Japan Quince planted by the side of a common 
picket or plank fence will, in a few years, make a good 
inclosure for a fruit or vegetable garden, and in flower is 
very ornamental. 

After hedges are established, a trench should be cut on 
the garden side, two and a half or three feet from their 
base, sufficiently deep to keep their roots from extending 
into the beds and injuring the crops. 



SOILS THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 39 



CHAPTER II. 

SOILS — THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 

Soils. — In all climates the character of the soil is of 
as much importance as situation or aspect. Soils are of 
two classes. They may be composed of matter derived 
directly from the decay of rock, like clay, loam, sand, 
lime, and other earthy and alkaline matters. Such a soil 
is classed as inorganic. Soils may likewise originate from 
the action and decay of plants and animals (organized 
beings), as, for example, peat, mould, and shell marl. 
Such a soil is classed as organic. A good soil is the result 
of the proper union of both these classes. 

The mechanical texture of a soil is likewise especially 
to be regarded, as on this depends the proper retention of 
manure and moisture. There are two grand divisions of 
soils, the heavy and lit/Jit, which pass into each other by 
imperceptible gradations. 

The best classification of soils is that of Schubler, a 
German, and is founded entirely upon the relative pro- 
portions of the chief constituents of all soils — viz., clay, 
sand, lime, and humus. He classes them as follows: 

Argillaceous Soils. — These contain over fifty per cent, 
of clay, and are readily known by their tenacity and 
.greatness to the feel, caused by the predominance of the 
clay in them. They are difficult to work, and in dry 
weather bake like brick and are not permeable to light 
dews and rains. In drying, they crack, exposing, in sum- 
mer, the large roots of plants to the air and sun, and 
breaking the smaller ones. After heavy rains they be- 
come so saturated that they are for a long time unfit to 
work, and the plants therein die from excess of moisture. 



40 GARDENING EOK THE SOUTH. 

Iii short, they are very cold when they are wet, and very 
hard when they are dry. The crops are full ten days later 
in coming to maturity than in a good, sandy loam. Ordi- 
nary clays contain about twenty-five per cent, of sand. 
If less than fifteen per cent, they are only fit for brick- 
making and pottery. 

Clays are rich in alkalies, and have the property of 
retaining potash, phosphoric and silicic acids, and all 
salts necessary to the growth of plants; also of con- 
densing ammonia and other gaseous matters. Hence 
they retain the virtues of manure better than most other 
soils. Where there is present lime and organic matters 
in sufficient quantity, clays, not too stiff, are excellent 
for wheat. 

A sandy ■soil is in texture the opposite of the preceding 
and the lightest of all soils. It contains not over ten 
per cent, of clay. Such soils are harsh to the feel, lack 
cohesion, permit the water that falls upon them to pass 
instantly through them, and, as they heat up quickly, the 
crops raised in them soon suffer from drought. In them 
vegetation is early, but less vigorous and sustained. They 
do not readily combine with manures, the soluble parts of 
which are leached into the subsoil, or are washed out by 
the rains; so that, if manure be not constantly applied, 
they will yield but a moderate crop. Gravels are, in this 
respect, from the coarseness of their particles, still worse 
than sands, and are very properly called "hungry soils." 
Indeed, the fertility of a soil depends in a very great 
degree upon the fineness of its particles. Sand is spar- 
ingly soluble in water containing alkaline matter in solu- 
tion, and in this state forms a portion, and sometimes an 
important portion, of the food of plants. It is soluble 
silica; in other words, dissolved sand, which the plant of 
wheat or maize has extracted from the soil and deposited 
upon the exterior of its stem, that gives the stalk or straw 



SOILS THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 41 

its stiffness, and the lack of which in sufficient quantity 
subjects it to the attacks of rust. Silica usually forms a 
small proportion, too, of grains, legumes, and succulent 
roots. 

For garden purposes, the only kind of sand suitable is 
that which is fine and has been' rounded by moving water. 
The angular particles of road sand form hard, impermea- 
ble masses, and should never be employed. (Lindley.) 

A loamy sand i< a better soil than the preceding, and 
contains from ten to twenty per cent, of clay. These light 
soils are best adapted to tap-roots and bulbs and for 
striking cuttings, while those heavier are better fitted 
for plants with fibrous roots. 

A .sandy loam contains between twenty and thirty per 
ecu I. of clay, while all soils containing from thirty to fifty 
per cent, of clay are classed as ordinary loams. 

In a garden designed for the cultivation of a variety of 
plants, both a light and a moderately heavy soil are de- 
sirable. But the best soil for general purposes is a loam 
of medium texture, rather light than otherwise, arising 
from a suitable admixture of the two, as they reciprocally 
correct the defects of each other. Where the other essen- 
tials are present naturally, or added by man, such a soil 
is suitable for the production of nearly all garden crops. 
Any soil, by judicious culture, draining, and amelioraters, 
or amendments, can be converted into such a loam. 

Lime in greater or less proportions is generally present 
in soils, commonly as a carbonate. It is sparingly solu- 
ble iu water, and is especially, when combined with acids, 
as in the sulphate (gypsum), or the phosphate of lime 
(bone earth), an important portion of the food of our 
most useful plants. There are some plants, however, as 
the Kalmia, to which its presence, to any appreciable ex- 
tent in soils, is injurious. Any one of the foregoing soils 
that contains from five to twenty-five per cent, of lime is 



42 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

classed as marly (as a marly clay, a marly loam, etc.). 
When it contains over twenty per cent, it is classed as 
calcareous. A small percentage only of lime is required 
for the successful growth of plants. Marly soils, other 
things being equal, are the best adapted to fruit trees 
and wheat. They are also classed as argillaceous, loamy, 
sandy-loamy, and loamy-sandy nlarls, etc., according to 
the relative amounts in them of clay and sand; while if 
they contain above five per cent, of humus (vegetable mat- 
ter in a state of decay), they are classed as humus marls, 
which may be also argillaceous, if containing fifty per 
cent, of clay; loamy, if from thirty to fifty per cent., and 
sandy, if less than thirty per cent, of clay. 

Calcareous soils (which contain more than twenty per 
cent, of carbonate of lime) also are classed in the same 
manner with marly soils, according to the relative 
amounts of clay, sand, and humus they contain — as argil- 
laceous, or loamy calcareous, etc. 

Organic Soils. — Shell marls, though of organic origin, 
are naturally classed with the calcareous soils. The other 
organic soils are mainly of vegetable origin, resulting 
from the decay of plants, and are named humus soils. 
This last class is of three orders: 1st. Soluble mild humus, 
that is, vegetable mould in a fit condition for the nourish- 
ment of the plants which grow in it, such as thoroughly 
rotted peat, black or leaf-mould. 2. Acid humus, which 
contains a free acid, injurious, if not destructive, to most 
plants. 3d. Peat or other fibrous vegetable matter, which, 
though free from acidity, is not yet in a proper condition 
to impart nourishment to plants. Humus soils may be 
argillaceous, loamy and sandy, and also contain, or be 
destitute of, calcareous matter. 

Humus has the property of producing a constant sup- 
ply of carbonic acid by slow combination with oxygen. 
It aids greatly in keeping a soil in an open state, so as to 



SOILS THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 43 

allow water and air to pass freely through it, and by vir- 
tue of its porosity it condenses and retains gaseous mat- 
ter within, and it absorbs saline substances. Though such 
a soil freely parts with a superabundance of water, yet in 
dry weather it imbibes from the atmosphere large sup- 
plies of moisture. Schubler found that 100 pounds of 
dry humus would hold 100 pounds of water without losing 
a drop. In dry weather 1,000 grains of it spread upon 
a surface of fifty inches absorbed from the atmosphere 
in three days 120 grains of moisture. Of silicious sand 
the same amount absorbed nothing; sandy clay, 28 grains; 
loamy clay, 35; stiff clay, 35; garden mould, 52. Hence 
the best defence we have against drought is an abundant 
supply of decayed organic matter in a loamy soil. Neither 
clay, sand, humus, nor lime will, if pure, sustain a healthy 
vegetation; but properly mixed, they constitute the main 
ingredients of the richest soils in the world. As good 
loam contains sufficient lime, it is constantly employed 
with peat and sand, in varying proportions, by gardeners 
as the essentials for proper development of the plants 
they wish to grow therein. 

Where true peat cannot be obtained, leaf-mould from 
the woods, black muck from the swamps, well decom- 
posed and sweetened by exposure, or thoroughly rotted 
turf mixed with powdered charcoal, are the best substi- 
tutes.* 

The depth of a soil is quite as important as its texture. 
If not naturally deep, it must be made so by trenching. 
Deep soils retain a constant supply of moisture in dry 
weather, so that the plants do not suffer; they do not 
become too wet in rainy seasons, as the earth drinks in 
and retains the rain below the surface; hence they are 
not so liable to wash away. If equally rich, they furnish 



* Rural Cyclopedia, Dr. Lindley. 



44 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

plants with a more abundant supply of food than shallow 
soils. Especially for all tap-rooted plants, a deep soil is 
indispensable. In the preparation of your garden, then, 
sec that the ground is dry, deep, and rich. Good vege- 
tables will not grow in a wet soil; a shallow soil will not 
furnish them with a regular supply of moisture ; and the 
crops growing upon a poor soil never repay the labor 
bestowed upon them. 



IMFKOVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 



45 



CHAPTER III. 

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 

A soil may be improved in texture, in depth, and by the 
addition of such constituents necessary for the growth of 
plants as may be wanting. 

The texture of a clayey -soil can be rendered more per- 
vious by thorough draining, deep trenching, and by the 
application of sand, ashes, lime and unfermented manure. 
Any clayey, retentive subsoil will be greatly benefited by 
good underdrains. A wet soil is always cold, as water 
has a much greater capacity for heat than has earth. 
The same quantity of heat that will warm the earth four 
degrees will warm water but one. Water, also, is a bad 
conductor of heat downwards. Boiling water can be 
gently poured over cold water without heating the latter, 
except a very little at the surface. Now, if the soil in 
spring be saturated with water colder than the summer 
rains, unless it be removed by drainage, the rains cannot 
descend to carry warmth into the ground; neither will the 
wet soil conduct the atmospheric heat downwards with 
much rapidity. But draw off the cold water by proper 
drains, and the warmer water can percolate through and 
raise the temperature of the soil. As the warmer water 
settles, the porous space it occupies will admit warm air. 
(Thompson.) Drainage, also, by admitting the atmosphere, 
renders the soil much more friable. Soils well drained 
have likewise been found to suffer far less from summer 
droughts than before. Underdrains should be not less 
than three feet below the surface, and four feet is much 
to be preferred. 

Trenching renders the upper stratum of soil more light 



46 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

and friable acting as drainage, but imperfectly. Its great 
utility is in increasing the quantity of soil to which the 
roots of plants find access. 

Drainage. — Lands which produce poor crops in spite 
of their fertility may be greatly improved by drainage, 
particularly if the soil contains a surplus amount of 
water The surface water must flow off freely aud rapidly 
after sinking below the surface. Whenever it stands on 
the surface any considerable length of time after a rain 
it is evidence of the saturated condition of the soil, and 
therefore great need of thorough drainage. 

The benefits of draining lands are summed up as fol- 
lows: Deepening the soil, pulverization is accelerated, 
surface washing is reduced to a minimum, the soil works 
lighter, air is readily supplied to the roots of the plants, 
the evil effects of droughts are greatly reduced, because 
the open, porous condition of the soil permits of the 
absorption of air, and, when the air particles come in 
contact with the cool earth, moisture is precipitated from 
the atmosphere. 

The usual shape of tites is shown in Figure 4. It is an 

earthenware tube vary- 
ing in diameter from three 
inches upwards. A collar 
rits over the joints and 

Fig. 4— Drain Tile. J 

serves the double purpose 
of holding the sections together and at the same time 
preventing the entrance of sand at the joints. In clay 
soils no collar is required. 

The size of the pipe needed to drain the land must be 
determined by the amount of water to be conducted off, 
and the character of the adjacent lots from which the 
water may be drawn when the system begins operation; 
and it must meet the emergency of heavy flows of water. 
The pipes must be sunk deep enough to place them out 




IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 47 

of reach of the subsoil plow and frost, and at the same 
time to render them efficient in the work they are to per- 
form. Experience has proven that three to four feet 
below the surface will yield the best results. The fall 
must be sufficient to readily and rapidly carry off the 
water entering' the system. Ordinarily, three inches fall 
to each one hundred feet distance will give a flow strong 
enough to meet the demands of the soil, but a greater fall 
will yield better results. In determining the size of the 
drain pipes the following fact must be borne in mind: 
The smaller the pipe the more concentrated the flow and 
the greater the chance for sweeping along solid matters, 
and thus ridding the pipe of clogging materials. The 
capacity of a pipe is proportionate to the square of the 
diameter, so that a tile one inch in diameter will have 
a capacity of one inch of water, while a pipe two inches 
in diameter will take four inches; one three inches in 
diameter will take nine inches. As a general rule, a 
three-inch pipe will drain two and one-half acres when 
placed five hundred feet apart, a four-inch pipe four acres, 
six-inch pipe nine acres, when the grades are less than 
three feet to the hundred. 

The distance between the trenches to hold the tiles may 
vary from fifteen to fifty feet, depending upon whether 
the land is stiff clay or sandy. The mains must be large 
enough to readily take the water which the laterals 
collect and transmit to them. 

The water goes in at the joints and not through the 
pores of the tiles, as some people assert, so that in laying 
the system care must be taken simply to place the pipes 
end to end without cementing or obstructing the joints, 
and thus preventing the free and ready flow of water into 
the system. 

The old notion of covering the land with an elaborate 
system of piping has been abandoned, and it has been 



48 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

found by experiment only necessary to tile the lower 
portions of the land, and the uplands will also be suffi- 
ciently drained. 

Ashes and lime each have the property of rendering 
heavy soils lighter, and light soils more tenacious, and 
both more productive, especially for potatoes, turnips, 
beets, and peas, which delight in calcareous soils. In cold 
climates, plowing clay lands deeply in the fall, and expos- 
ing them to the action of the winter's frost, is very bene- 
ficial, but in sections where there is little frost and abun- 
dant and heavy washing rains, it is worse than useless. 
Turning under coarse vegetable or carbonaceous matter, 
as straw, leaves, pine straw, corn-stalks, a crop of cow- 
peas, clover, or any other green crop, bog, or leaf-mould, 
decomposed peat, and even tan-bark itself, so deeply be- 
neath the surface as not to interfere with cultivation, will 
by the slow decomposition of these materials much in- 
crease the fertility of a clay soil by improving its texture. 
It is most improved by drainage, if needed. 

The frequent working of the soil with the hoe and 
spade, thereby admitting the ammonia and fertilizing- 
gases of the atmosphere, is itself very beneficial to clay 
soils, if done when the earth is dry. A clay soil is exceed- 
ingly injured if worked while wet. It is so difficult to 
work, and so liable to bake into a hard crust after every 
rain, that it will well repay, where materials for the 
purpose are at all convenient, to lay out a good deal of 
time and labor in improving its mechanical texture. 

The texture of a sandy soil is much more easily improved 
than a clay, as the percentage of clay required to con- 
vert any sand into a loam is not very large, and can easily 
be added. Fortunately, too, in sandy soils, clay is gen- 
erally near at hand, often lying but a few inches beneath 
the surface. A few loads of stiff clay, scattered thinly 
over the surface in autumn, are worth more applied to 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 



49 



such a soil than any manure, for the clay will render 
manures permanent in their effect, which else would 
leach through without benefit to the crops. The effect 
of the clay itself is lasting. Lime, as before observed, 
stiffens the texture of a sandy soil, and gypsum has the 
same effect. Ashes, leached or unleached, are also an 
excellent and profitable dressing to such a soil, but the 
best of all applications is a good clay marl. Peat, vege- 
table manure, and carbonaceous matters of all kinds, 
such as refuse charcoal, are good applications to these 
sandy soils, as they enable them better to retain the fer- 
tilizing properties of the manure applied, though they do 
not much affect the texture of the soil. Sandy soils very 
often rest upon a clay bottom, so that the thorough 
trenching which a garden should receive will often 
greatly improve its texture. Working such a soil while 
wet, and the continual use of the roller will also render 
it more tenacious. But clay is the great improver, and 
it is astonishing how small a quantity of fine clay will 
cement a loose sand into a good loam. 

To conclude, in regard to the texture of soils, choose or 
make 4 or the garden a loam of medium texture a little 
inclined to sand, and the finer its particles the better. 
Clays and sands both become objectionable as they depart 
from this friable, loamy texture, and the first step in their 
improvement is to bring them to this condition. A 
medium consistency best agrees with vegetation. 

The depth of soil in the garden is as likely to need im- 
provement as its texture. A deep soil is necessary that 
the roots may penetrate it freely in search of food, and be 
able to endure our summer droughts. The roots of a 
strawberry have been traced five feet down in a deep, 
rich soil. The difference in the freshness and growth of 
plants raised upon trenched soils and those growing upon 
soils prepared in the common manner is remarkable. In 
4 



50 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

lawns, the color of the grass will indicate very exactly 
the greater or less depth of the soil. The depth of soils 
may be increased by subsoil plowing, or trenching. 

Trenching is the old mode of improving the depth of 
the soil in smaller gardens, and is usually performed in 
this manner: At one end of the plot to be trenched dig 
with the spade a trench three feet wide and two feet 
deep; throw the earth out on the side away from the plot 
to be trenched. Shovel the bottom clean, and make the 
sides perpendicular, leaving a clear open trench across 
the plot. Open another trench the same width, and put 
the surface spadeful of that into the bottom of the former 
trench, and the next spadeful upon that, until open to 
the same depth as the first one, adding meanwhile the 
necessary manures and amendments. When the plot is 
entirely trenched in this way, the last trench will remain 
open, which must be filled with the earth thrown out from 
the first one, which finishes the work. This method is 
now seldom resorted to, since the same ends are secured 
by the use of the subsoil plow with very much less expen- 
diture of labor and time. 

Subsoil Plowing. — A common turning plow gogs first, 
and plows as deep a furrow as practicable. It is followed 
by the subsoil plow in the same furrow, which should 
loosen the soil, without turning it up, to the depth of 
eighteen or twenty inches, unless it is a stiff clay or 
gravel. If the soil requires the application of organic 
matter, it is best to apply it before the deep plowing is 
done; or the organic matter may be secured by first pre- 
paring the land well and sowing in cowpeas or fieldpeas 
and turning under. This is one of the best ways of en- 
riching the land, and should be always adopted where 
the land is poor. 



FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 51 



CHAPTER IV. 

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 

It is the part of wisdom to return to the soil all those 
ingredients which the plants have taken off, so that the 
land will not become impoverished. Fertilizing, there- 
fore, is the essential part of the gardener's duty each year. 

The substances applied to the soil for its betterment 
may be divided into two groups: 

1. Those minerals which amend the condition of the 
land by changing its texture, correcting its acidity and 
otherwise modifying its condition than by the nourish- 
ment they directly afford the plants. Such are clay, sand, 
lime, marl, old plaster, etc., when applied to soils which 
need them. 

2. Organic and inorganic substances which supply the 
food for plants — such as barnyard manures and commer- 
cial fertilizers. 

The first group may be applied at irregular, and proba- 
bly at long intervals, in order to place the soil in the best 
physical condition for the well-being of the plant; but 
the second group of substances must be placed in the 
land in small or large quantities as the needs demand, 
each year in order to keep the fertility of the soil up to 
its maximum condition by restoring what has been 
extracted during each harvest. 

The ingredients most likely extracted by the growing 
plant, in sufficient quantities to seriously affect the fer- 
tility of the land, are phosphoric acid, potash and nitro- 
gen. The other substances entering into the composition 
of the plant are taken in such small amounts that the 
effects on the soil are inappreciable even after many years 



52 GARDENING FOR TIIK SOUTH. 

of cultivation. It is important, then, that the three chemi- 
cals — phosphoric acid, potash and nitrogen — should be 
returned to the land each year in quantities sufficient for 
and in condition suitable to the immediate demands of 
the growing plant. 

The nutritive manures mentioned in the second group 
are contributors directly to the demands of the plant, but 
barnyard manure is probably the most efficient fertilize]' 
for restoring the soil to a normal condition than is to be 
secured from any of the so-called commercial fertilizers. 
It not only contains the elements required for plant food, 
but it also has the property of rendering available the 
stored-up ingredients and greatly improving the condi- 
tion of the soil for absorbing moisture. Barnyard manure, 
however, is variable in its value, depending upon the 
character of food fed to the animals, the condition of 
animals — whether young and growing or old and feeble, 
fattening or in normal condition, the proportion of litter 
placed in the stalls, and the care with which the manure 
is kept. If fermentation has taken place, and the manure 
has been permitted to weather, so that leaching may 
result, of course the soluble constituents will be lost, 
and the fertilizer will be greatly depreciated in value. 

" When practicable, it is best to apply manure in the 
fresh condition. The disposition to be made of the 
manure of the farm (both fermented and unfermented) 
must be determined largely by the nature of the crop 
and soil. Where improvement of the mechanical condi- 
tion of the soil is the principal object sought, fresh 
manure is best adapted for this purpose to heavy soils, 
and well-rotted manure to light soils. Where prompt 
action of the fertilizing constituents is desired, the best 
results will probably be obtained by applying fresh 
manure to the light soil, although excessive applications 
in this case should be avoided on account of the danger 



FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 53 

of 'burning; out' of the soil in dry seasons. Fresh manure 
has a forcing effect, and is better suited to grasses and 
forage plants than to plants grown for seeds, such as 
cereals. Direct applications to root crops, such as sugar 
beets, potatoes, or tobacco, often prove injurious. The 
manure should be spread when carried to the field, and 
not left in lumps to leach."* 

Commercial fertilizers are sold under two classes — 
viz., "complete" and "partial," depending upon whether 
the three necessary ingredients (phosphoric acid, potash 
and nitrogen) are present or only one or two of them. 
In determining which of these two classes of fertilizers 
to use the gardener must be governed entirely by the 
character of the plant and the condition of the soil. 

"Plants," says Liebig, "contain combustible and incom- 
bustible ingredients. The latter, which compose the ash 
left by all parts of plants on combustion, consist, in the 
case of our cultivated plants, essentially of phosphoric 
acid, potash, silicic and sulphuric acids, lime, iron, mag- 
nesia, and chloride of sodium." It is now fully established 
"that the constituents of the ash are elements of food, 
and hence indispensable to the structure of the different 
parts of tin* plant." 

The few ashes that remain after burning a plant are all 
that it got necessarily from the soil. From eighty-eight 
to ninety-nine per cent, of the weight of the plant has 
escaped into the air, from which, and from water, the 
plant has derived it immediately or remotely. The com- 
position of their ashes varies in different parts of the same 
plant and slightly in the same species when grown on 
different soils; but they are always a valuable manure for 
the species from which obtained, and, slowly dissolving 



*"Barnyard Manure," Farmer's Bulletin No. 21, U. S. Dept. Agri., p. 31. 



54 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

in the soil, they furnish the roots with just the salts re- 
quired to nourish the growing plant. 

But, in general, over nine pounds in every ten have 
disappeared under the action of fire. The combustible 
portions which have been expelled are carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen, and a little nitrogen, which have been derived 
from carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, which are, as 
elements of food, equally indispensable as the substances 
of which the ashes of plants are composed. 

The incombustible constituents of the plant come from 
the soil aloue, and are taken up by the roots. 

After the gaseous constituents of plants are driven off 
by combustion, the small percentage of ashes remaining, 
as we have stated, consists of .silicic and phosphoric acids, 
potash, sulphur, lime, magnesia, iron, chlorine and soda (the 
two latter generally unite as chloride of sodium), all of 
which, in greater or less proportions, enter into the 
composition of our field and garden crops. These earthy 
or saline constituents are found within the cells of plants, 
or deposited as a lining to the cell-walls, or entering into 
their substance. They are useful to the plant itself, and 
useful in the plant's products as affording food to man. 
Some of them are always present in the azotized sub- 
stances formed by plants. Thus sulphur and the phos- 
phates are, with ammonia, necessary for the formation of 
albumen, fibrin, and caseine, which are essential con- 
stituents of our blood. 

Lime generally occurs as a carbonate and sulphate, or 
gypsum. Partially soluble in water, it is an important 
ingredient in the soil to most of our cultivated plants. It 
is indispensable to such plants as beets, potatoes, peas, 
beans, fruit trees, grasses, and vines, but to Kalmias and 
coniferous trees it is injurious. Lime in the soil enables 
it better^to absorb and retain heat, and also corrects 
acidity. It is of great value as an application to cold. 



FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 55 

tenacious soils, rendering them of more open texture, 
and making the organic matters therein available to 
plants. It, on the other hand, makes light soils more 
adhesive, acting as an amendment. It decomposes 
organic matters, whether vegetable or animal, and forms 
with them a partially soluble compound peculiarly fitted 
for the food of plants. But as it has the property of setting 
free ammonia, it should never be applied in connection with 
fresh animal manures. Mixed with stable manure or guano, 
it would speedily free them from nearly all their am- 
monia, that indispensable and most costly constituent 
of the food of plants. 

This will not happen to an}' great extent, and there will 
be little loss, if the mixture takes place in, and both the 
lime and manure are entirely covered with the soil, which 
will at once absorb whatever ammonia the lime sets free. 

The great value of lime, aside from the small quantity 
directly available to plants, is in hastening, as above 
stated, the decomposition of decaying matters in the soil, 
and rendering them assimilable by plants. The old black 
mould of kitchen gardens and other soils rich in humus, 
it will suddenly render wonderfully productive, and they 
will consequently speedily become exhausted, unless new 
supplies of organic manures are added. Lime alone, 
added to a soil, will speedily exhaust it if the crops are 
removed and no return of manure is made. 

Dr. Ililyard, in the Tenth Census Reports on cotton 
production, makes the following admirable deduction 
concerning the use of lime in soils: 

1. "A more rapid transformation of the vegetable mat- 
ter into active humus. 

2. "The retention of such humus against the oxidiziug 
influences of hot climates. 

3. "It renders adequate for more profitable culture 
percentages of phosphoric acid and potash so small that 



56 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

in the case of the absence or deficiency of lime, the soil is 
practically sterile. 

4. "It tends to secure the proper conditions of nitrifica- 
tion whereby the inert nitrogen of the soil is rendered 
available. 

5. "It exerts a most important influence upon the 
floeculation, and therefore upon the tiFlability of the 
soil."* 

The Indikect Action of Manures. — Some manures 
ameliorate the soil by absorbing and retaining moisture 
from the atmosphere. This property is as beneficial to 
a clay as to a sandy soil during drought, as at such times 
clays are often baked so as to be impervious to the dew, 
and suffer nearly or quite as much as more sandy soils. 
The best absorbents of moisture are stable manure, thor- 
oughly decomposed tan-bark, and the manure of the cow 
and pig, in the order named. After these come sheep and 
fowl manure, salt, soot, and even burnt clay is not with- 
out its virtue. All these absorbents are much more effec- 
tual when finely divided, and the soil itself is a good 
absorbent in proportion to its richness, fineness, and the 
friability produced by frequent culture. In the power of 
retaining moisture absorbed, pig manure stands pre- 
eminent; next that of the horse, then common salt and 
soot. 

Some manures are beneficial in absorbing not only 
moisture, but nutritious gases from the atmosphere, 
which they yield to the roots in a concentrated form. All 
animal and vegetable manures have the power of attract- 
ing oxygen from the air during decomposition. Charcoal 
and all carbonaceous matters have the power of absorb- 
ing carbonic acid gas in large quantities, supplying con- 
stantly to the roots of plants an atmosphere of carbonic 



♦Cotton Production — Tenth Census. 



FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 



57 



acid, which is renewed as quickly as it is abstracted. 
The same substances are especially valuable for their 
power of absorbing ammonia. Charcoal will absorb 
ninety times its volume of ammoniacal gas, which can 
be separated by simply moistening it with water. 

Decayed wood absorbs seventy times its volume, while 
leaf-mould, perfectly rotted tan-bark, and, in fact, all 
vegetable manures, are exceedingly valuable in this 
respect. 

Another indirect action of manure in assisting the 
growth of plants is in decomposing and rendering available 
any stubborn organic substances in the soil. Stable 
manure, and all decomposing animal and vegetable sub- 
stances, have a tendency to promote the decay of any 
organic remains in the soil. All putrescent substances 
hasten the process of putrefaction in other organic bodies 
with which they come in contact. Even peat and tan- 
bark, mingled with stable dung and kept moi.st, are converted 
into good manure; common salt in small proportions has 
a similar septic property, and the efficacy of lime in this 
respect is well known. 

Ashes are of equal value, but not so easy to obtain in 
sufficient quantity. Neither ashes nor lime should ever be 
mixed with manures that are rich in ammonia, such as 
cotton seed or animal manures, as they would cause great 
waste of ammonia by setting it free and permitting it to 
be lost in the atmosphere. 

Inorganic substances are sometimes released from their 
combinations, and rendered soluble by the application of 
carbonaceous manures. Ashes from which the soluble 
potash has been leached, if composted with swamp muck, 
are enabled to furnish plants with a further supply. By 
composting the two the value of both is greatly increased. 
Such a compost may be mixed with ammoniacal manures, 



58 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

not only without loss, but with decided benefit, and the 
ammonia will be retained. 

Another indirect agency of manures is in protecting 
plants from sudden changes of temperature. There is no 
doubt that rich soils and those abounding in animal and 
vegetable remains, arc less liable to change their temper- 
ature with the incumbent atmosphere than those of 
poorer constituents, for the decomposition of manures 
gives warmth to the soil. Corn can be grown in high 
latitudes upon rich land only; upon a poor soil it would 
perish. 

The last indirect effect of manures upon plants is to 
improve the texture of the soils in which they grow. 
Decomposing in the ground, they leave interstices as they 
become less in bulk, making it more light and porous. 
The effect of manure in rendering a stiff soil light and 
friable is ver}' well known. It is equally true that vege- 
table manures give to sandy soils greater tenacity, 
enabling them better to retain moisture and ammonia. 

Manures, then, should be adapted to soils and circum- 
stances. Cohesive and binding manures are most suitable 
for open sands; those of open texture, for stiff clays; those 
that readily attract and retain moisture, for dry soils; 
heating, dry, strawy, and turfy manures, for wet or clayey 
soils; and those of slow decomposition for hungry gravels. 

Gypsum. — Of this a very small quantity will suffice. 
One bushel per acre yearly is all that is needed. In 
absorbing ammonia from the manure heap, charcoal dust 
and leaf-mould are much cheaper. It is the cheapest way 
of supplying the soil with what sulphur is required. 

Marl, where it can be obtained, may be applied with 
advantage, especially to sandy soils. It is generally bene- 
ficial in proportion to the quantity of lime it contains. 

Some marls contain both phosphate of lime and potash 
in considerable quantities, and hence are of increased 



FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 



59 



value. Before largely applying it, experiments should be 
made on a small scale, as some marls, upon trial, are 
found to be injurious. 

CHARCOAL renders the soil light and friable, gives it a 
dark color, and additional warmth for early crops. The 
bed whereon charcoal has bees burnt is always marked 
by a most vigorous growth of plants when it becomes 
sufficiently mixed with earth. It contains also small 
quantities of salts of potash and other fertilizing salts. 

It absorbs both carbonic acid and ammonia from the 
air, and yields them to the roots of plants. It is most 
marked in its effects on plants which require abundant 
nitrogen. As it is indestructible, its beneficial effects 
last as long as it remains in the soil, supplying the root- 
lets of plants with carbonic acid, which is renewed ;is fasl 
as abstracted. Its good effects begin to be seen when the 
dust is applied at the rate of forty bushels per acre. ( 'lmr- 
coal is invaluable for destroying the odor of decaying 
animal matter, retaining all the gases in its own sub- 
stance ready to yield them up for the use of plants. 
Hence, the best application of this substance is not 
directly to the soil, but to compost it with putrescent 
animal matters, urine or night soil, of which it will ab- 
sorb all the odor and fertilizing gases given off during 
their decomposition. Composted with the last-named sub- 
stance, it becomes poudrt tt< , and is second only to guano 
as ;i fertilizer. 

In striking cuttings or potting plants, fine charcoal is ;i 
valuable substitute for sand, plants rooting in it with 
great certainty. Plants will flourish in powdered char- 
coal alone with considerable vigor, and. added to the 
other materials used in potting, it is found greatly to pro- 
mote healthy growth in most plant-. 

Fine charcoal can be obtained in considerable quanti- 
ties from the old hearths where it has been burned: also 



60 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

from the refuse of smiths' shops, founderies, and machine 
shops. All the refuse of the garden that will not decay, 
pea-brush, trimmings of trees, cabbage and corn-stalks, 
together with tan-bark, sawdust, and fresh shavings, 
may be collected, the coarser materials placed at the bot- 
tom and set on fire when the heap is building, then 
covered with the finer. After beating all well together, it 
should be covered well with short, moist rubbish, weeds 
and clods. Bermuda grass turf is the best material for 
this purpose if you are troubled with it, and it is better if 
it has been obtained from a clayey loam. After the heap 
is well on fire, clayey turf, together with the clay of the 
soil, may be added to the top, and a large quantity of the 
charcoal mixed with burnt clay is thus prepared. At first 
there is great difficulty in keeping the piles on fire, and 
strict attention is required. Thrust a stake in different 
places, that the fire may. run through the entire heap, and 
if it breaks out in any of these, stop them anew with rub- 
bish and brush, cover with earth, and make holes in new 
places. When the smoke subsides the heap is charred 
enough. When finished and the fire put out store it up for 
use. The mixture thus prepared has been found beneficial 
in every instance, and is a most valuable manure, espe- 
cially for roses, producing invariably an abundance of 
fibrous roots, clean, healthy, vigorous growth, and luxu- 
riant blooms. (Paul.) 

Besides charcoal, there are many other vegetable sub- 
stances of great value as absorbents of the fertilizing 
salts and gases that would otherwise escape from animal 
manures. Carbonaceous matter of every sort should be 
provided for this purpose. Gather the leaves of trees of 
all kinds, including pine straw. They contain many sub- 
stances necessary for the growth of the plants from which 
they fall, or available to other plants. Throw them into 
the stables and yards, moisten them and sprinkle them 



FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 61 

with the lime and salt mixture, and if kept in a damp 
state and turned over once or twice, they form the best 
manure known for all kinds of trees and shrubs, and 
indeed afford all the necessary constituents, organic and 
inorganic, of all cultivated plants. 

Swamp Muck is another valuable absorbent. Gather 
the black earth of swamps, place in piles and let it dry 
out the superfluous moisture, and haul it to the compost 
heap or yard. Swamp muck, by its elasticity, keeps the 
soil light and open, and is excellent both for absorbing 
and retaining moisture therein. It may be reduced with 
ashes or lime, either of which will destroy all its naturally 
acid properties. The salt and lime mixture is the best 
and usually the cheapest for this purpose, but leached 
ashes mixed with carbonaceous matter have an additional 
part of their potash rendered soluble and available for 
plants, and should be used thus where obtainable. 

The Lime and Salt Mixture is thus prepared: Take 
three bushels of unslaked lime, dissolve a bushel of salt 
in as little water as possible, and slake the lime there- 
with. If the lime will not take up all the brine at once 
(which it will if good and fresh burned), add a little more 
of the brine daily, turning and adding until all is taken 
up. Keep it under cover until w T anted for use. Of itself it 
supplies plants with chlorine, lime and soda, and acts like 
lime or ashes in reducing stubborn vegetable matters and 
correcting their acid properties. 

With a load of swamp earth, mix a bushel and a half 
of the lime and salt mixture intimately while it is in a 
moderately moist state, and in thirty days it will be 
decomposed. Upon a layer of this earth six inches thick, 
spread a coat of fresh stable manure, each day covering it 
with ten times its quantity of prepared muck, which w T ill 
absorb all the gases and salts. Let the pile accumulate 
until four feet high, and then turn it all over, mix it again, 



62 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

and cover the whole with a thick coat of prepared muck. 
If too dry to ferment add water, and in three weeks it 
will be fit for use, and will be found equal to common 
stable manure, and is entirely free from insects of all 
kinds. In reducing composts of all kinds, the heap must 
be kept moist or no fermentation will be produced. Keep- 
ing- it "always moist but never leached" is the way to 
produce a strong compost. 

A thick layer of the muck should be kept also in the 
hog-pens and stables to absorb the urine, removing the 
solid manure from the latter daily, and the muck at the 
end of each week. Upon this muck also the house slops 
of all kinds should be poured, and where charcoal is not 
employed, a bushel every three days should be thrown 
into the privy to destroy the offensive gases produced. 
The muck, whether prepared with the above mixture, 
with ashes or lime, will retain all the virtues of the ani- 
mal manure. Neither lime nor ashes, unless in excess, 
when thus combined with vegetable matters, will drive 
off the ammonia. 

Leaf-Mould, or the black surface soil of the woods, is 
of still more value. This is free from the acid properties 
of swamp muck, and may be supplied directly to most 
plants in the flower garden, many of which will not 
flourish unless this material is present in the soil. It is of 
still more importance for potting plants in the green- 
house. For the kitchen and fruit garden it is best com- 
posted, like swamp muck, with fresh animal manure. It is 
indispensable in garden culture. 

Tan-Bark is another material abounding in carbon, 
which may, to some extent, be used as an absorbent of 
animal manure. It may be beneficially applied directly 
to strawberries, to which it answers the double purpose 
of mulching and manure. But the crowns of the plants 
must not be covered; and for all purposes it should be 



FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 63 

obtained as much decomposed as possible. Tan may be 
applied directly to Irish potatoes when ready to cover in 
the furrow. After they are dropped and the manure 
applied, a coat of old tan, composted with ashes or the 
lime and salt mixture, may be given, and the planting- 
finished by covering this with earth. It improves the 
yield materially and the quality also, as all carbonaceous 
matters do. Where swamp muck or leaf-mould can be 
obtained, it is hardly worth while to use tan as an 
absorbent of animal manures. 

It is not of sufficient value to be worth hauling far. In 
trenching, it may, with other coar.se matters, be mixed 
with the bottom soil to lighten its texture and act as a 
reservoir of moisture. For corn it may, after composting 
with ashes, be mixed with the surface soil, when, if not in 
excess, it will be of some service to the crop. 

It is very difficult to reduce, but if kept moist, the lime 
and salt mixture will do it. It mnj be strewed in the 
stock-yard six or eight inches thick, and sprinkled pretty 
thickly with the mixture. The treading of the stock will 
mix it. Let the whole be turned over in a moist state 
once or twice, and in the course of the winter it will be- 
come a valuable application to the plants that do well 
with fresh manure. There are abundant elements of fer- 
tility in tan, but it is more difficult to render them avail- 
able than with any other vegetable substance; and it is, 
upon the whole, quite a dangerous article to experiment 
with. Reduced thoroughly by composting it with stable 
manure, using in this case no lime, and then mixed witli 
decayed leaves and plenty of sharp sand, it makes a toler- 
able compost for growing those plants which require 
peat, such as Azaleas and Rhododendrons. Tan, properly 
composted, will prove of most use in light soils deficient 
in vegetable matter, and when less decomposed, for open- 
ing the texture of close, heavy clays. 



64 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Decayed chips, sawdust, shavings, etc., are best applied 
to Irish potatoes, as directed in the case of tan-bark. 
They should be covered with soil to promote a more 
speedy decay. They have much the nature of tan-bark 
without its acidity, and may be likewise, when somewhat 
decayed, composted with stable manure and used as peat. 
All these substances are valuable for burning clay or for 
charring, and afterwards incorporating them with urine, 
night soil, or superphosphate of lime. In the case of tan- 
bark, this is undoubtedly the safest and most profitable 
w T ay to use it. 

Green Manures are various crops, raised to turn into 
the ground in a fresh state for fertilizing it. For this pur- 
pose all the weeds of the garden should be employed 
while green. Over any vacant spots in the garden not 
wished to be used in autumn, rye or barley can be sown, 
which will keep the soil from washing, and when large 
enough may be either cut for feed, or turned into the soil 
as the plots are wanted for use. Spinach should be sown 
in considerable quantities, as it grows all winter, and, 
spaded into the soil in spring, adds a good deal to its fer- 
tility. The seed can be saved in any quantity with little 
trouble. 

But the most fertilizing plants for this purpose are 
leguminous plants, like the Cow T pea, as they draw nour- 
ishment largely from the atmosphere, and afford a great 
amount of foliage for turning under as manure. This 
class of plants is also quite rich in ammonia. 

Animal Manures. — This is the most important class, 
and the greatest attention should be paid to collecting, 
preserving, and economizing them. All animal manures, 
when compared with the preceding class, are more rich in 
nitrogen, and more easily decomposed and rendered 
soluble ; but though the effect of this class of substances 
is much more obvious, it is not so lasting. 



FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 65 

Its value consists in part of certain volatile and soluble 
substances, which, in the common mode of preserving- 
manure, are dissipated in the air or washed away by 
heavy rains. In this climate it is necessary to shelter 
manure from the sun and rain. All animal matter is 
either directly or indirectly derived frorii vegetable sub- 
stances; hence, every portion of the same that can be 
rendered soluble is a valuable food for plants. Among 
the most important animal substances employed as ma- 
nures are urine, and dung of all kinds. The first of these 
is almost invariably wasted, though in the case of the 
cow, it is of more value than the solid excrements. It 
should be carefully saved by bedding the yard and stables 
with swamp muck, wood earth, or some other absorbent. 
Urine is particularly rich in ammonia. This may be ab- 
sorbed by the muck or by sprinkling the floor of stables 
and the manure heap frequently with fine charcoal or 
gypsum. This substance, sprinkled upon the floors of 
stables, forms a compound like the urate of commerce, 
so powerful that five hundred pounds will amply manure 
an acre. If you can obtain no other absorbent, tan-bark 
is not without its value, but the weeds, sweepings of 
walks, and other refuse of the garden, particularly leaf- 
mould and the dark top-soil of pastures, are to be pre- 
ferred. Urine may be diluted with three times its bulk of 
water and permitted to grow stale, and be applied at 
night or in moist weather directly to the growing crops. 

The principal animal manures are those of the horse, 
the hog, the cow, and the sheep. Of these horse manure 
is most valuable in its fresh state. That of the hog comes 
next, then that of the ox, while the cow is at the bottom 
of the list, because most of the enriching substances in 
her food go to the formation of milk, leaving the manure 
comparatively weakened. The richer the food given to 
animals, the more powerful is the manure. If animal 
5 



66 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

manures are employed in a fresh state, they should be 
mixed intimately with the soil, and given to such coarse 
feeding crops as corn and the garden pea. But nearly all 
plants do better if the manure is composted and fully 
fermented before use. Pig manure, used alone, is con- 
sidered pernicious to the growth of the cabbage and 
turnip tribe, and gives an unpleasant taste to many other 
vegetables, but composted with muck or mould, it is 
much more beneficial as well as more durable. 

In managing animal manures, decomposition must be 
promoted; the volatile parts must be preserved from dis- 
sipation in the air, and the soluble portions from being 
washed out by rains. That it may ferment, it must be 
kept in a body, that heat may be generated and its natural 
moisture retained, while beneath it a layer of some ab- 
sorbent substance should be placed, to receive and retain 
its soluble parts, and as fast at it is thrown from the 
stable it should be covered with layers of muck to retain 
the ammonia. Horse manure, especially, should not be 
exposed at all; it begins to heat and lose ammonia almost 
immediate^, as may be perceived by the smell. Mix it 
with other manures and cover it with absorbents as soon 
as possible. Keep the stable bedded with muck, and over 
this a good bed of leaves. 

The Manure of Birds is richer than that of any other 
animals; as the solid and liquid excrements are mixed 
together, it is particularly rich in nitrogen and the phos- 
phates. Three or four hundred weight of the manure of 
pigeons, fowls, turkeys, etc., is of equal value with from 
fourteen to eighteen loads of animal manure. 

Night Soil and chamber slops should be composted as 
before directed with charcoal, or the black mould from 
woods. Gypsum may be added to the mixture; all smell 
is thus destroyed, and an offensive nuisance is converted 
into a valuable application to any crop. Where charcoal 



FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 67 

is freely used, this substance becomes perfectly inodorous. 
Guano and poudrette are the best possible manures for 
the cabbage tribe and other plants that need phosphates 
and nitrogen. Both these manures are exceedingly power- 
ful, but their effects do not last beyond one season. The 
fertilizing properties exist in the right proportions to be 
taken up at once by the plants, and nearly all their nutri- 
tive properties are exhausted the season they are applied. 
If in a hole or dry ditch are deposited all the leaves or 
vegetable refuse that can be collected, and over this is 
poured daily the house slops, and all smell prevented by 
the timely application of charcoal or woods earth, a com- 
post is formed exactly similar in its constituents to farm- 
yard manure, and containing all the eight substances by 
which plants are artifically fed. (Lindley.) 

Liquid Manure. — Almost any manure may be applied 
to the soil with benefit in a liquid state. Liquid manure 
generally implies urine or the drainings of dung heaps 
and stables, chiefly consisting of urine and the dissolved 
excrements of animals. Diluted more or less as required, 
it can be applied about once a week to plants in any stage 
of growth, and is particularly useful to those grown in 
pots. The soil should not be oversaturated with it, and it 
should be used alternately with pure water. Do not give 
it to plants that are in a state of rest. 

CoMrosTS. — The composting of manure should take 
place, as a general thing, as fast as it is made. In the 
garden, out of sight, there should be a compost heap for 
receiving all kinds of rubbish that can have the least 
value as fertilizers. Make a shallow excavation of a 
square or oblong form, with the bottom sloping to one 
end. Into this collect the litter and sweepings of the 
yards, decayed vegetables of all kinds, brine, soapsuds, 
and slops from the house, woollen rags, leaves, green 
weeds, and garden refuse. After it has accumulated a 



68 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

little, turn it over, adding a little of the salt and lime 
mixture, and keep the whole inodorous by covering it 
with rich mould or black earth from the woods. If the 
heap is formed entirely of vegetable materials, ashes or 
lime should be added; but if it contain animal matter, 
they would do harm by setting free the ammonia, The 
heap should not be deep, but, like all other manure heaps, 
should be kept "always moist, but never leached," by the 
addition of liquids from the house and kitchen. If this 
compost be for a sandy soil, the addition of clay would be 
, very beneficial. 

Composting is the best way of rendering available all 
sorts of refuse organic matter, but do not introduce those 
antagonistic in their effects. For instance, never compost 
lime with animal matters which, in their decomposition, 
form ammonia. 

Special Composts are prepared for different species of 
plants, and they are of great utility in floriculture. Com- 
posts for plants in pots are made up of loam, leaf-mould, 
sand, peat, and manure. The loam is the decomposed 
turf from a rich, old pasture, which should not rest upon 
clay, and the upper three inches only are taken. It 
should lie one year before using. Leaf-mould is the dark 
surface soil of the woods, formed from decayed leaves. 
Sand should not be from roads: use fine surface or river 
sand. The manure is unfit to use if less than a year old, 
and improves by frequent turning, and lying two years. 
Peat is the black soil from swamps, mingled with very 
fine sand. It should be exposed a year and frequently 
turned before using. Black woods earth, mingled with 
one-third pure sand, is the best substitute. The propor- 
tions of the most common composts are given in the fol- 
lowing table: 



FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 



69 



Number oj 




Leaf- 
mould. 








Compost. 


Loam. 


Sand. 


Prat. 


Manure. 


1 


1 






3 




2 


3 


2 


1 




1 


3 


3 


1 


1 




1 


4 


1 






2 




5 


4 


4 


1 









4 




1 




1 


7 


3 


2 


1 . 






8 


4 


2 


1 






9 


1 


1 




i 




10 


1 


1 


1 




1 



The essential elements of plant food — viz., potash, 
nitrogen and phosphoric acid — may now be purchased in 
the markets combined in proportions to suit all demands, 
as complete or partial manures. A short discussion of 
their origin and properties is not out of place in a book 
of this character. 

1.— POTASH. 



The German deposits of crude potash salts furnish the 
largest supply of this important fertilizer to the markets 
of the world. The chief forms in which these salts occur 
in the mines are sulphate and nitrate (chloride) and 
kainit, which is a combination of chlorides of magnesium 
and sodium, magnesium sulphate and potassium sul- 
phate. The kainit is largely used in the manufacture of 
commercial fertilizers containing potash. The ashes from 
cotton-seed hulls is a valuable source of potash, and a 
good market for this southern product has been created 
within the past few years since the sale of cotton-seed oil 
has become such an important item. The hulls, after 
extracting the interior of the seeds, are used for fuel in 
the manufacture of oil, and the resulting ashes are 
sacked and sold for fertilizers. When the hull ashes are 
mixed with "nitrogenous organic materials great caution 
is (o be observed, since mixtures of this kind, if kept for 
any length of time, especially if allowed to become moist, 







GAEDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 



are likely to ferment with consequent loss of a consider- 
able proportion of nitrogen."* 

Cotton-seed-hull ashes contain besides potash seven to 
eight per cent, of available phosphoric acid, thus making 
this fertilizer one of the most valuable in the reach of the 
southern planter. 

Tnh/f Giving Approximate Amount of Potash in Fertilizing Materials.] 



Materials Containing Potash. 



Carnallite 

Cotton-seed-hull ashes 

Kainit 

Krugite 

Muriate of potash 

Nitrate of potash 

Sulphate of potash (low grade). 
Sulphate of potash (high grade; 

Wood ashes (unleached) 

Wood ashes (leached) 



l'i r i 'i at. of 
Actual Potash. 



13 to 14 

L5 to 28 

12 to 14 

8 to 9 

50 to 53 

43 to 44 

28 to 30 

is to -"'1 

4 to 8 

1 to 3 



Pounds of Actual 
Potash in .■Him 
lbs Of Mali rial. 



260 
300 
240 
160 
1000 
860 
560 
960 
80 
20 



to 280 

to I 

to 280 

to 180 

to 1060 

to 880 

to 600 

to 1020 

to 160 

to 60 



2.— NITROGEN. 

Nitrogen is derived from several sources — viz.: 

1. — Mineral nitrogen compounds. 

2. — Vegetable nitrogen compounds. 

3. — Animal nitrogen compounds. 

4. — From the air by certain growing plants. 

The compounds of the first group generally used in the 
manufacture of commercial fertilizers are known as 
sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda. The first results 
from the manufacture of illuminating gas, and yields a 
high percentage of nitrogen. Nitrate of soda is obtained 
from the mines in Chili and Peru, and is known in the 
markets as "Chili salpetre."" Its condition when mined is 
impure, containing a large percentage of common salt, 
but before shipment the crude product is purified and 

* " Fertilizers— Commercial and Domestic," B. B. Ross, Alabama 
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 63, page 86. 
fGeneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station Bulletin No. 94, page 324. 



FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 



71 



concentrated by leaching until the article which is sold 
in the United States produces as much as ninety-five per 
cent, of nitrate of soda, or fifteen to sixteen per cent, of 
nitrogen in an available form. 

In the Southern States we have a most excellent source 
of nitrogen in cotton seed and cotton-seed meal, which 
are probably the most important of nitrogen-producing 
substances. The abundance of cotton seeds in the cotton 
region supply a cheap origin for nitrogen for the Southern 
gardeners, and the value of the seed is greatly enhanced 
from the fact that the two other important plant foods 
are found in them in quantities of about three per cent. 
of the former and two per cent, of the latter. 

The animal origin of nitrogen is dried blood, fish scraps, 
tankage and other waste products from slaughter-houses. 
The blood is dried by steam, and yields from nine to 
fifteen per cent, nitrogen. The fish scraps also supply 
large quantities of phosphoric acid. 

Table Giving Approximate Amount of Nitrogen in Fertilizing Material.* 



Materials Containing Nitrogen. 


.1 it rage Per 
( 'rut. Nitrogi n. 


Pounds of Ni- 
trogen in :.tniti 
lbs. of Material. 


( 1 ) Mineral materials. 


25 to 26 

13 to 14 
15 to 16 
19 to 20^ 

(•> to 7 
2 to 2^ 

10 to 12 
10 to 15 

7 to 8 

14 to 16 
10 to 12 

7 to 8 
in to 12 
7 to 9 


500 to 520 
260 to 280 
310 to 320 
380 to 410 

121) to 1 10 
40 to 50 

200 to 240 
200 to 300 

lln to 160 
280 to 320 
200 to -Jin 
140 to 160 
21 in to 240 
Hil to 180 


Nitrate of potash 


Nitrate of soda 

Sulphate of ammonia 

(2) Vegetable materials. 


Tobacco stems 


1 3 1 Animal materials. 


Dried blood 


Dried fish 


Hair 


Nitrogenous guanos 


Oleomargarine refuse 

Tankage 





*Geneva (N. Y.) Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 94. 
page 315. . 



72 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

When peas, clovers, and other leguminous plants are 
cultivated they have the power of drawing from the 
atmosphere abundance of nitrogen by means of the 
peculiar construction of their roots. If a healthy, vigor- 
ously growing pea-plant is carefully drawn from the soil 
and the roots washed, a large number of small tubercles 
or enlargements will be noticed varying in size over all 
rootlets. These are storehouses of minute germs which 
have the power of extracting from the atmosphere quan- 
tities of nitrogen, which is absorbed by the plant. When 
the plant is turned under the soil it not only supplies the 
needed organic matter, but also, in its decay, leaves in 
the soil the nitrogen extracted from the air by the germs 
developed in its roots. Under these conditions it is pos- 
sible to secure from the air one of the most expensive 

fertilizers. 

3.— PHOSPHORIC ACID. 

The apparent effect of phosphates applied to the soil 
is to stimulate vegetation and to promote the formation 
of roots. If used for the drainage of pots in the form of 
broken bones, or at the bottom of vine borders, the roots 
soon find their way down to, and extract nutriment from 
them. 

The phosphates, like all other plant food, to be of ser- 
vice, must be within the reach of the roots of plants. 
Fertility is not to be measured by the quantity of plant 
food a soil contains, but only by that portion which exists 
in a finely divided state, as it is only with such portions 
that the rootlets of plants can come in close contact. An 
ounce of bone in a cubic foot of soil produces no marked 
effect upon its fertility if unbroken. Dissolve it and let 
it be distributed through the soil, and it will suffice for 
the food of one hundred and twenty wheat plants. The 
most abundant application of earthy phosphates in coarse 
powder can, in its effects, bear no comparison with a 



FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 



73 



much less quantity, which, in a state of minute subdi- 
vision, is dispersed through every part of the soil. A root- 
let requires, where it touches the soil, a most minute 
portion of food, but it is necessary for its very existence 
that this minute supply should be at that precise spot. 
(Liebig.) 

Dr. L. L. Yan Slyke, chemist of the Geneva (New York) 
Agricultural Station, gives the following excellent ac- 
count of the origin of phosphoric acid in Bulletin No. 94, 
New Series, pages 315 to 321: 

"Phosphoric acid is generally found in combination 
with lime (calcium), forming, at least, three different 
compounds — viz. : 

1. Insoluble phosphate of lime. 

2. Soluble phosphate of lime. 

3. Reverted phosphate of lime. 

1.— INSOLUBLE PHOSPHATE OF LIME. 

"This is known under several other names, as insoluble 
calcium phosphate, normal calcium phosphate, tri-cal- 
cium phosphate, bone phosphate of lime, etc. 

"This form of calcium phosphate is called insoluble 
because it does not dissolve in water. 

"It is found in nature in large quantities in several 
minerals, which will be noticed later. It also constitutes 
about eighty-five per cent, of the ash or inorganic matter 
of bones. It is also contained in the excrement of animals, 
as in guano, etc. 

"Insoluble phosphate of lime is found everywhere in 
the soil. However, in this form, calcium phosphate has 
the least value for the farmer, because it is not easily 
dissolved, and cannot, therefore, be taken up and used 
by the plants, except very slowly. To make the insoluble 
phosphate available for plants so that they can take it up 



V I GAEDENING B"OH THE BOUTHi 

the insoluble phosphate inusi be converted into some 
form which Is soluble — thai is, which dissolves in water. 
This 4 ;i ii be done by treating it with sulphuric acid (oil 
of vitriol). 

2.— SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE OF LIME. 

"This is known under several other names, as acid phos- 
phate of Lime, acid calcium phosphate, acid phosphate, 
superphosphate of Lime, superphosphate, mono calcium 
phosphate, He. It is uol found actually occurring. 

"As indicated above, lh<' soluble calcium phosphate is 
made by treating the insoluble calcium phosphate with 
sulphuric acid. By this treatment a portion <>l" the «;ii 

ciiiin is removed fr the phosphate and unites with the 

sulphuric acid, forming calcium sulphate or sulphate of 
lime, in addition to the soluble phosphate. This mixture 
of ihc soluble phosphate and sulphate of calcium is 
known as superphosphate of lime. The phosphate in this 
form, being easily soluble in water, can be readily taken 
up by plants, :m<l is, therefore, of greal value as a fer 
tilizer. The sulphate of lime is :ils<> known to have value 
as ;i fertilizer. In plain superphosphate <>f lime there are 
generally formed aboul lit* pounds of sulphate <>r lime 
for each loo pounds of soluble phosphate of lime. The 
value of superphosphates depends upon the amounl of 
soluble phosphate contained in them. 

3.— REVERTED PHOSPHATE OF LIME. 

"Reverted phosphate of lime is known also as reverted 
calcium phosphate, precipitated phosphate of lime, dl 
calcium phosphate, citrate-soluble phosphate, etc. 

"When soluble phosphate of lime is allowed to stand 
for some time ii will happen nmler certain conditions 
thai some of the soluble phosphate is changed into a less 
soluble form of phosphate. This is no1 the same form 
as ordinary insoluble calcium phosphate above described; 



FERTILIZERS A \ I » mam i.i . 



78 



for a reverted phosphate, while insoluble in water, can 
l»c readily dissolved by weak acids or by water containing 
carbonic acid or salts of ammonia. Since the soil and 
I > I :i ii I roots generally contain acids sufficiently strong to 
dissolve reverted phosphates, phosphoric acid in (his form 
is generally regarded as very nearly equal to soluble 
phosphates in value ;is ;i fertilizer. The term reverted 
w;is introduced to express the fad thai the phosphoric 
acid in this form had been once soluble in water, hot that 
ii had "reverted," or gone back, to a form insoluble in 

w ;i (or*. 

"The reverted form of phosphoric acid is often found 
in small quantities in connection with insoluble phos- 
phates, and in larger amounts in guanos; ii is also round 
to n considerable extenl in bones and other forms of 
orga qic niui ter 

"Summary: ()(' the forms of phosphate of lime which 
are used as food for plants, we have — 

"First. The ordinary insoluble phosphate of lime, which 
cnii be changed by treatment with sulphuric acid into 

"Second, The soluble phosphate <>f lime, and I his, on 
standing, may, under certain conditions, undergo change, 
forming — 

"Third. The reverted phosphate of lime, which is insolu- 
ble in pure water, l»ui soluble in the acids of the soil and 
plants, and in the water containing carbon dioxide 

"The soluble and reverted forms of phosphoric acid, 
taken together, are called available phosphoric acid. 

"The materials which furnish the greatest proportions 
of phosphoric ;i<id used in making fertilizers are the fol- 
lowing: Hoiks, bone-ash , bone-black, bone-meal, phosphatic 
guano, rod; phosphate, superphosphate, Thomas slag, etc. 

"Bones. Bones consisl of two quite different kinds of 
material. The hard portion consists mostly of calcium 
phosphate <»r phosphate of lime, and constitutes from one- 



76 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

half to three-fifths of the weight of the bone. The remain- 
ing portion consists largely of a soft ? flesh-like substance 
called ossein, or, more commonly, gelatin. It is dis- 
tributed throughout the entire mass of bone, and is rich 
in nitrogen. When bones are burned, the nitrogenous 
matter is driven off and only the mineral portion, or phos- 
phate of lime, remains. Bones, such as are used in 
making commercial fertilizers, contain four to five per 
cent, nitrogen and from twenty to twenty-five per cent, 
of phosphoric acid, equivalent to forty-five to fifty-five 
per cent, of phosphate of lime. 

"Bone-Ash. — As the name implies, bone-ash is made by 
simply burning bones in the open air. The nitrogen, of 
course, is driven off and lost in burning, and the chief 
constituent is insoluble calcium phosphate, equivalent 
to thirty to thirty-five or more per cent, of phosphoric 
acid. 

"Bone-Black, known also as bone-charcoal, is exten- 
sively used in refining sugar. After it has been used sev- 
eral times, portions become useless for refining purposes, 
and are then sold for fertilizers. Bone-black is made by 
heating bones in closed vessels, the air being excluded. 
By heating bones in this manner the fat, water, and 
nitrogen are removed from the bones, and the bone-black 
remaining consists mainly of insoluble calcium phosphate 
and carbon or charcoal. The presence of carbon hinders 
the decomposition of the phosphate, so that in this form, 
it is not readily available as food, for plants. Good 
bone-black may contain thirty or more per cent, of phos- 
phoric acid. 

"Bone-Meal goes under various names, such as ground- 
bone, bone-flour, bone-dust, etc. We find in the market 
rair bone-meal and steamed bone-meal. Raw bone-meal 
contains the fat naturally present in bones. The presence 
of the fat is objectionable, because it makes the grinding 



FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 77 

more difficult, and retards the decomposition of the bones 
in the soil, while fat itself has no value as plant food. 
When bones are steamed the fat is removed, and the bone 
is more readily ground. Moreover, the chemical nature 
of the nitrogen compounds appears to be changed in such 
a manner that the meal undergoes decomposition in the 
soil more rapidly than in the case of raw bone. The 
presence of easily decaying nitrogen compounds in bono 
hastens, in the process of decomposition, to dissolve more 
or loss of the insoluble phosphate. Bone-meal should 
contain from three to five per cent, of nitrogen and from 
twenty to twenty-five per cent, of phosphoric acid; about 
one-third or one-fourth of the latter appears to be in 
readily available condition. Raw bone-meal generally 
contains somewhat more nitrogen (one to two per cent.), 
and rather less phosphoric acid than steamed bone-meal. 

"The fineness of the meal affects its value; the finer 
the meal the more readily available it is for plant food. 
On account of the increased demand for bone for various 
purposes, and on account of their increasing value, there 
is considerable tendency to adulterate bone-meal with such 
substances as lime, gypsum, coal-ashes, ground oyster- 
shells, ground rock phosphate, etc. 

"Phosphatic Guanos, or Rock Guanos. — Guanos 
generally consist chiefly of the dung of sea-fowls, though 
the term is applied to other animal products. They are 
generally found in beds resembling earthy deposits. The 
guanos which are called phosphates contain little or no 
nitrogen. Their phosphoric acid is generally in the form 
of insoluble phosphate of lime, iron and alumina. These 
guanos come mainly from certain islands in the Pacific 
Ocean, and from Caribbean Sea and West India Islands. 
The amount of phosphoric acid in different guanos is very 
variable, ranging from below fifteen to over thirty per 
cent. 



78 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

"Rock Phosphates are known under several different 
names which generally designate the locality from which 
they come, as South Carolina Rock, Florida Rock, Ten- 
nessee Rock, West India Rock, etc. Other mineral phos- 
phates are known under the names of Apatite, Coprolite 
and Phosphorite, which are found in various places in 
America and Europe, and some of which are used in 
making commercial fertilizers. However, the greatest 
source of supply of phosphoric acid is the phosphate rock 
of our Southern States. The rock phosphates are exten- 
sively used in making superphosphates. When ground 
to a very fine flour-like powder, rock phosphates are 
called "floats." Rock phosphates contain usually from 
twenty-five to thirty per cent, of phosphoric acid, and 
some as much as thirty-five to forty per cent. 

"SurEitPHOSPHATES are known under several different 
names, such as acid phosphates, dissolved bone, dissolved 
rock, etc. Superphosphates are formed by treating some 
form of insoluble phosphate of lime, as rock phosphate, 
bone, bone-ash, etc., with sulphuric acid. By this treat- 
ment there are formed soluble phosphate of lime and 
gypsum (sulphate of lime) in nearly equal proportions. 
The value of a superphosphate depends upon the amount 
of soluble phosphate of lime present in it, together with 
the amount of reverted phosphate of lime. The amount 
of soluble phosphoric acid compounds in superphosphates 
varies with the kind of phosphate used in making the 
superphosphate and also with other conditions, which we 
need not mention here. A good quality of dissolved bone 
contains twelve to eighteen per cent, of soluble phos- 
phoric acid. Dissolved bone-black contains from below 
fifteen to seventeen per cent, of soluble phosphoric acid. 
Superphosphate made from rock phosphate may contain 
from twelve to eighteen per cent, of soluble phosphoric, 
acid. 



FERTILIZERS AXD MANURES. 79 

"Thomas Slag is more familiarly known as odorless phos- 
phate. It is also known under several other names, such 
as basic iron slag, Thomas scoria, phosphate slag, etc. 
This is a comparatively new source of phosphoric acid 
compounds. It is a by-product formed in the manufac- 
ture of iron and steel from certain kinds of iron ore con- 
taining phosphorus compounds. In the process phos- 
phate of lime is formed, which is ground to a fine 
powder."* 



* Geneva, N. Y. Experiment Station Bulletin, No. 94, pp. 315 to 321. 



SO GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



CHAPTER V. 

ROTATION OF CROPS. 

The same crops cannot be grown from year to year 
upon the same soil without decreasing its productiveness. 
All plants more or less exhaust the soil, but not in the 
same degree, nor in the same manner; hence, as different 
plants appropriate different substances, the rotation of 
crops has considerable influence in retaining the fertility 
of a soil. If the same kind of plant is continued upon 
the same soil, only a portion of the constituents of the 
manure applied is used; while by a judicious rotation 
everything, in the soil or in the manure, suitable for vege- 
table food, is taken up and appropriated by the crop. 
However plentiful manure may be, a succession of ex- 
hausting crops should not be grown upon the same bed, 
not only because abundance is no excuse for want of 
economy, but because manure freshly applied is not so 
immediately beneficial as those remains of organized 
matter which by long continuance in the soil have become 
impalpably divided and diffused through its texture, and 
of which each succeeding crop consumes a portion. 

Some crops are so favorable to weeds, that if continued 
long upon the same bed, the labor of cultivating them is 
much increased, while if raised but once in a place and 
followed by a cleaning crop, the weeds are easily kept 
under. Besides, many crops planted continually in the 
same soil are more liable to be attacked by the insects and 
parasites which are the peculiar enemies of those plants. 

Many insects injurious to plants deposit their eggs in 
the soil which produced the plants they have infested, 
ready to commit their depredations upon the succeeding 



ROTATION OF CROPS. 



81 



crop; but if this crop is changed to a distant locality, they 
often perish for want of their proper food. So, many 
parasites leave their seeds or spores in the soil, to the in- 
creased injury of the succeeding crop, if of the same 
species. 

Again, different plants derive their principal nourish 
ment from different depths of soil. The roots of plants 
exhaust only the portions of soil with which they come 
in contact. Perpendicular-rooted plants throw T out few 
side roots, and derive most of their nourishment from a 
considerable depth, while fibrous-rooted plants seek their 
food near the surface. Plants of the same species extend 
their roots in a similar direction, and occupy and exhaust 
the same strata of earth. 

Different plants by means of their roots act differently 
upon the physical nature of the soil. Surface roots spread 
abroad their tufted fibers, which in their decay break up 
and lighten the surface soil, while perpendicular roots 
have a somewhat similar effect upon the deeper strata. 

The most exhausting crops are, in general, those which 
are allowed to perfect their seeds, as they extract from 
the soil all the essentials of the plant, from the root to the 
seed. The seeds of many species draw from the soil more 
of its ammonia, phosphates, etc., than is drawn by all 
other parts of the plant. Hoot crops are generally less 
exhausting, and plants cultivated for their leaves are 
usually still less so. 

Enough has been stated to show the necessity of a 
change of crops, and the following are found the best 
rules to observe in practice: 

1. Crops of the same species, and even of the same 
natural order, should not succeed each other. 

2. Plants with perpendicular roots should succeed 
those with spreading and superficial roots, and vice versa. 

6 



82 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

3. Crops which occupy the soil for several years, like 
asparagus, rhubarb, etc., should be followed by those of 
short duration. 

4. Two crops alike favorable to the growth of weeds 
should not occupy the soil in succession. 

5. Crops abstracting largely from the soil the sul- 
phates, phosphates, and nitrogenous principles, should 
not follow each other immediately, but be succeeded by 
those which draw less from the soil and more from the 
atmosphere. These exhausting crops should follow and 
be followed by those which bear and will profit by heavy 
manuring. 

6. Plants grown for their roots or bulbs should not 
follow those grown for the same purpose, and still less 
should plants grown for their seeds follow each other 
directly in succession. 

The following are found in practice to be convenient 
crops to succeed each other in rotation, beginning after 
an application of manure — viz.: Onions, lettuce, cabbage, 
carrots (manure); or, turnips, celery, peas, potatoes, 
(manure). 

The following is also a very good rotation: 

1. The cabbage tribe to be followed by — 

2. Alliaceous plants, as onions, leeks, etc., to be fol- 
lowed by legumes, as beans or peas. Peas may be fol- 
lowed the same year with celery. 

3. Tap-rooted plants, as carrots, beets, parsnips. 

4. Surface roots, as onions, potatoes, turnips. 

5. Celery, endive, lettuce, spinach, etc. 

Celery is excellent to precede asparagus, onions, cauli- 
flowers, or turnips; old asparagus beds may be used for 
carrots, potatoes, etc.; strawberries and raspberries may 
precede the cabbage tribe, cabbage the tap-rooted plants, 
potatoes the cabbage tribe. 



ROTATION OF CROPS. 83 

In these rotations it is not necessary to apply manure 
to every crop. For the bulbous roots, as the onion, and for 
plants cultivated for their leaves, as spinach and aspara- 
gus, the ground can scarcely be too rich; and the bulk of 
the manures may be applied to them and the cabbage and 
turnip crops, while for plants raised for seed it is best 
that the foliage should not be stimulated into too groat 
luxuriance by fresh manuring. 

In practice these rules should, as far as possible, be fol- 
lowed, but it is often necessary to vary from them or let 
a part of the soil lie, for a time, idle, notations in gar- 
dening become less necessary if the ground is plowed 
deeply aud manured highly. Vacant ground thus treated 
may be filled at once with any crop ready for planting. 

To get the highest possible results from a garden, there 
must be not only a general rotation of crops year by year, 
but a number of sub-successions each year, as fast as the 
crops are removed. One-fourth of an acre thoroughly 
manured and kept perfectly free from weeds, upon which 
a constant succession of crops is kept up, will yield more 
than an acre managed in the common way. It is not, 
however, always necessary to wait until the crop occupy- 
ing the soil is removed before another is put in. Simul- 
taneous cropping — that is, making two crops occupy the 
ground at the same time, as in field culture the cowpea 
in corn-fields — can often be resorted to in the kitchen 
garden. In the fruit garden, De Candolle says the vine 
and the peach can with advantage be grown together, the 
light shade of the peach not injuring the vines. 

Directions to meet all circumstances cannot be given, 
still the following hints may be suggestive of the best 
methods to secure in the kitchen garden satisfactory 
results : 

For instance, in the fall a portion of the garden may be 



84 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

occupied with spinach; this should be heavily manured, 
and may keep the ground until time to plant melons and 
other vines, when just enough of the ground may be 
deeply dug to form the melon hills, and the crop will be 
ready to remove before the melons begin to run. The 
melon crop may be followed by one of turnips. All such 
plants as radish, lettuce, and other small salads, need 
take up no room ; they can, an} T of them, be raised between 
the potato beds or drills, or between melon hills, rows of 
corn, etc., and the}' will come to perfection before the 
potato or other crops require the ground. lvadishes can 
be raised between the rows in the beds of all kinds of 
plants that are slow in coming up, as carrots, parsnips, 
etc., and will be ready to remove by the time the others 
come up. 

Any vacant spot that occurs early in summer should be 
occupied with plantings of extra early or sweet corn, 
potatoes, beets, kidney beans, for preserving for winter- 
use, and cucumbers for pickling. Those coming later in 
the season may be occupied by sweet potatoes until July, 
then corn, cowpeas, or rutabaga turnips. Where the early 
onions grow, both the alleys and the center of the bed 
may be plauted with late cabbages or Siberian kale 
before much of the crop is removed. Cabbages will head 
if the winter sorts be planted as late as the early part of 
August, and early Yorks put out in September, if in rich, 
moist ground, and well cultivated. Sweet corn may be 
planted until August. Still later, every unoccupied cor- 
ner should be covered with turnips and winter radishes, 
which may cover nearly the whole garden, being sown in 
drills between the rows of plants not yet quite ready to 
be removed. After the frost has come, any vacant spaces 
should be immediately sown with spinach, onions, and 
other crops for early spring use, or with barley or rye for 
the cow. The secret of successful cultivation, says Down- 



ROTATION OF CROPS. 



85 



ing, is an abundant supply of manure. A small extent 
of ground well manured and plowed deeply, by these 
sub-successions, will produce an enormous amount of 
vegetables, while the same surface only needs to be hoed, 
manured, and kept free from weeds, as if it produced but 
one crop. To be sure, more manure and more labor are 
needed, but nothing like the amount which would be re- 
quired to produce the same crops without these sub-suc- 
cessions. Many other sub-successions will occur to a 
thoughtful gardener, but to derive the full benefit of them 
the grounds should be well prepared when the garden is 
formed. 

Profits of Gardening. — The results of the above 
mode, of procedure, in the case of the garden of the 
Retreat for the Insane at Utica, New York, were pub- 
lished by Dr. Brigham. The land was good and yearly 
manured. The product was as follows on one and one- 
fourth acres of land: 1,100 heads lettuce, large; 1,400 
heads cabbage, large; 700 bunches radishes; 250 bum-lies 
asparagus; 300 bunches rhubarb; 11 bushels pods mar- 
rowfat peas; 40 bushels beans; sweet corn (three plant- 
ings), 419 dozen; summer squash, 715 dozen; squash pep- 
pers, 45 dozen; cucumbers, 756 dozen; cucumber pickles, 
7 barrels; beets, 147 bushels; carrots, 29 bushels; pars- 
nips, 26 bushels; onions, 120 bushels; turnips, 80 bushels; 
early potatoes, 35 bushels; tomatoes, 40 bushels; winter 
squash, 7 wagon loads; celery, 500 heads — all worth |621 
in the Utica market, but in use supplying 130 persons 
with all they could consume. Only one man was required 
to do all the necessary labor. 

The supply of northern markets with early fruits and 
vegetables is becoming yearly more and more profitable 
to all points which have direct steam communication with 
their great cities. Charleston, Savannah, and Norfolk 
now ship very largely asparagus, peas, snap beans, 



86 



GARDENING FOB THE south. 



cucumbers, and many other vegetables, and a variety of 
fruits Prom which remunerative profits are returned. The 
extreme earliness of the crops in the South enables the 
market gardeners to place their products on the markets 
of Now York and other Large northern cities some time 
before I lie gardens more northerly situated are ready to 
ship, and hence the benefits of the advanced prices are 
reaped. 

Forwarding Kakly Crops.— Early crops in the open 
air should be planted in a sheltered situation, on a dark- 
colored, silicious soil. II may be brought to a proper state 
by the admixture of sand and charcoal. Crops, on the 
contrary, may be retarded by planting in a border shel- 
tered from I he sun, and of a lighter color and more alumi- 
nous. There are many plants which do much better if 
sown in the fall. Rhubarb, parsley, etc., come up more 
freely if suffered to be in the ground all winter. Potatoes, 
too, may be early planted, and if they come up, should be 
sheltered by a covering of straw or litter, added from time 
t<> time to keep them from frost. Cabbage, cauliflower, 
broccoli, etc., sown in autumn and transplanted, may be 
kepi out all winter in boxes made by nailing four pieces 
of hoards together, eight inches wide. Cut the pieces 
twelve inches long at the bottom, and ten at the top; nail 
i hem together at the corners. After the frosts begin to be 
severe, throw in a handful of loose straw, which will pre- 
vent the sudden freezing and thawing of the plants. 
Great care should he taken to produce early crops, as they 
are less liable to bo injured by insects or weeds, and very 
much increase the satisfact ion of gardening. Early plants 
may be obtained by sowing them in a box set in a warm 
window, or may bo raised in autumn and protected in 
winter in a cold frame or pit, or grown any time during 
winter in a hot bed for those more delicate, or in a cold- 
frame under <4lass for the hardier kinds. Such plants. 



ROTATION OF CROPS. 87 

when set oul in I lie spring, need to be gradually hardened, 
and then require shading a tew days until established. 
Radishes sown under glass without heal early in January 
are generally hi for use early in March. But (<> forward 
plants with any success requires suitable structures for 
the purpose. 



88 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



CHArTER VI. 



HOT-BEDS, COLD FRAMES, AND PITS. 

Frames or Hot-Beds are most usually employed for 
forwarding plants. The frame for general use has from 
three to five sashes (see figure 5), and is made for con- 
venience about four and a half or five feet wide, and the 
length depends on the number of sashes, which are 
usually about forty inches wide. Use the smallest glass 







— .Hi' z^ - 9 — 






Fig. 5 —Hot-Bed and Frame. 

you can obtain, certainly not over seven by nine; a 
smaller size is preferable, as it is not so liable to be 
broken, and can be more readily repaired. These sashes 
are made without cross-bars, the glass overlapping like 
the shingles of a house, and resting on bars extending 
lengthwise of the sash. The lap of each pane of glass 
need not be over half an inch, and if the glass is set in 
the sash when freshly painted with two coats of paint, 
no puttying is necessary, if the sash is well made. The 



HOT-BEDS, COLD FKAME8 AND PITS. OV 

frame should be made of inch and a half plank as high 
again in the back as in the front, to give the sashes the 
proper slope to the sun, and sufficient inclination to carry 
off the wet. The front, of course, is towards the south. 
Let the back and front be nailed to corner posts, so as 
to admit the ends to fit in neatly, which ends arc to be 
made fast to the posts by common carriage bolts, in order 
that the frame may be taken asunder to store when not 
in use. All joints in the sides and ends should be tongued 
and grooved to prevent the admission of cold air or the 
loss of warm air from the bed. Each end should be made 
an inch and a half higher than the back and front, and 
grooved out one-half its thickness, to permit the sash to 
slide and leave the other half to support the outside. At 
the corner, also, of each sash, let another piece of scant- 
ling be placed, and on the top of these, narrow strips 
the length of the sash are to be nailed, for the sash to 
slide upon. Between the sashes nail an inch strip a 
little thicker than the sash to the narrow plank on which 
they slide, and put on the sash; and upon this strip, in 
cold weather, lay another narrow strip, projecting over 
the sash a little, to cover the joint and keep out the cold. 
Provide for the bed a full supply of good horse manure 
from the stable, mixed with moist litter, preferring that 
which is fresh, moist and full of heat. If there is not 
sufficient litter in the mass the heat will not be lasting; 
so as a substitute add oak-leaves or tan-bark. There 
should be at least one-third litter in the heap. Shake 
it up and mix it well together, sprinkling with water if 
dry, and throw it into a compact heap to ferment. In two 
or three days, if warm, or if cold, in a week, turn it over, 
and if dry and musty in any part, water again. Let it 
alone two or three days longer, and then work it over 
thoroughly, as before, and water if necessary. In a dry, 
sheltered situation opening to the south, mark out the 



90 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 

dimensions of the bed, making it fully a foot longer and 
wider than the frame each way. Throw out the earth 
about ten or twelve inches deep. Then begin to form the 
bed by spreading a thin layer of the prepared manure 
upon the ground, mixing the long and short well together. 
Upon this spread other layers mixed in the same manner, 
beating each layer with the back of the fork, but not too 
heavily, to keep it level, and equally firm throughout. 
Stakes should be placed at the corners to work to. The 
edges should be kept true and the corners firm, to do 
which the outside of each layer must be first laid down, 
and to make the manure keep in place a proper admixture 
of long litter is required. Continue until the bed is three 
feet above the surface, then spread the fine manure that is 
left evenly over the top, and water freely. As soon as 
finished let the frame and glass be put on with care, and 
keep them close until the heat rises and a steam appears 
upon the glass. As soon as the heat rises, give air at noon 
each day, but keep closed in the evening and at night, 
unless the heat is very violent, when a little air should 
be given. In three days, if the manure was sufficiently 
moist, the bed will be ready for use. If it has settled 
unequally, raise the frame and level the surface. Place 
in the frame six inches of fine, dark-colored, sandy garden 
soil, spread it evenly, and put on the sash. When warmed 
through sow in pots plunged in the mould, or in small 
drills from one-eighth of an inch to an inch deep, varying 
in depth with the size of the seeds, and cover by sifting 
fine earth on the surface. Water gently by sprinkling 
with tepid water through the fine rose of a watering 
pot. When the plants appear they should have air every 
day freely (unless absolutely freezing), which will bring 
them up strong, and prevent their dropping off by excess 
of confined moisture. There are very few days which will 
not permit opening the bed, not by sliding down the 



HOT-BEDS, COLD FRAMES AND PITS. 91 

cashes, but by raising- them at the back, holding them 
open by a triangular block to slip in so that they can be 
opened from two to five inches. Open the bed in the mid- 
dle of the day, as above, but close early that the plants 
may not become chilled. During warm, gentle rains, the 
sash should- be opened, but closed very carefully during 
cold or heavy washing storms. About 60° is the proper 
temperature; it should not rise above 75°. Such a bed 
as this is invaluable for striking cuttings of all kinds, 
in which case there should be an inch of clear river sand 
or charcoal spread over the surface. Annuals of all kinds 
for the flower garden, tomatoes, peppers, cabbage and 
lettuce plants, etc., will be ready, if the bed is made in 
January, for transplanting quite as soon as they can be 
removed with safety. Make the bed six or eight weeks 
before the plants will be required. The quantity of 
manure required to form a hot-bed varies with the season 
and external temperature, a larger bulk being needed in 
January than at a later season. Even a small bed should 
have the mass not less than five feet long by four feet 
wide, to maintain the proper heat. If the soil whereon it 
stands is clayey the whole bed should be made above 
ground, as the water settling in the trench would check 
the heat of the entire bed. If the bed is made early in 
the season it will require the application of fresh mate- 
rials at the sides or " linings " to keep it at the proper 
temperature. 

The best substitute for stable manure in forming a hot- 
bed is spent tan, but to keep it in its position a plank bin 
or a brick pit is required. It takes more time for the heat 
to rise, but it is longer continued, milder and more man- 
ageable than stable manure, and is quite sufficient for a 
seed-bed. A little slightly fermented stable manure is 
needed to be added to the center of the bed, as it will 
start fermentation sooner. 



92 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

In sowing the bed let the more tender plants, as egg-~ 
plants, peppers, etc., be sown under the same sash, and 
separated by a thin plank partition under the cross-bar 
from the rest of the frame. The finer and more delicate 
seeds will require the sash above them to be shaded until 
the plants appear, or each pot may be separately covered 
until the seeds are up. At night, if cold, cover the bed 
with plank shutters, old carpets, or mats. Gradually, as 
the plants grow strong, accustom them to the air as the 
season grows mild. This can be done by opening the 
frames entirely during the day, aud leaving them exposed 
during mild nights, or by transferring them to the cold- 
l'raine. 

('old Frames are made just like those for the hot-bed, 
only the box need not be over fifteen inches high at the 
back, and are excellent for wintering nearly hardy plants 
of all kinds, and also for forwarding the more hardy 
plants, as hardy annuals, cabbage, lettuce, etc. Indeed, 
they are quite as iudispensable as the hot-bed, and less 
expensive, as they require no manure, but rest directly on 
the soil. They are also of great service in hardening off 
hot-bed stock, which should be transferred to them before 
it is set out in the open ground. In very severe weather, 
the heat may be kept in by earthing up the sides and 
covering the sash with mats during the night. Air should 
always be given when the weather will admit, or the 
plants will grow up yellow and spindling. In managing 
frames, the secret of success is to give plenty of air. 
Plants raised in cold frames are generally more hardy 
and desirable than those from a hot-bed, unless the latter 
are repotted early, and when re-established, transferred 
to the cold frame, to harden them. A cold frame or pit 
covered with tiffany (a prepared thin cotton cloth) is even 
better than one covered with glass, for the purpose of 
hardening off young stock. 



HOT-BED*. COLD FEA.MKS AND PITS. 



93 



Frames of all kinds should be painted of a light color, 
every year, both for the preservation of the wood and for 
the destruction of insects and their eggs, that are con- 
cealed in their crevices and angles. A frame for raising 
seedlings or striking cuttings need not be over eighteen 
inches deep at the back, to nine inches in front, as it is 
important to keep the seedlings near the glass. 

Pits. — Figure G shows a section of a lean-to pit, in 
which tall plants may be set upon the bottom, while a 
stage may be put in to bring small plants near the glass. 
All pits should be built of brick, and those with the walls 
built hollow above the surface are preferable. In a pit 
six feet wide the back should be about fifteen to eighteen 
inches higher than the front. Pits are also useful in pro- 
tecting delicate plants in summer, from heavy rains and 
scorching suns, and for bringing up many seedlings in 
the spring that do not require artificial heat. In all cases 
ample provision must be made for drainage, as plants 

will not flourish in 
damp, confined air. 
When a pit is de- 
sired merely to pre- 
serve plants during 
the winter, it is bet- 
ter that the glass 
should face rather 
to the north, that is 
from north-east to north-west, in order that growth may 
not be excited, and the plants thus kept perfectly at 
rest during the winter. If the pit faces any other quar- 
ter the air within gets heated,, and the plants keep on 
growing late in the autumn, are stimulated into tem- 
porary growth too early in the spring, and are much more 
in danger of destruction by frost. The pit should be kept 
as dry as possible and ventilated daily when the frost is 




Fig. 6— Section of Pit. 



HOT-BEDS, COLD FRAMES AND PITS. 9' 5 

not too severe, and to protect the roots of plants from 
frost and to prevent the necessity of frequent waterings, 
the pots should be plunged in some dry material, as sand 
or tan-bark. Very little water should be given to plants 
in their dormant state, for they cannot assimilate it. 
Many plants, as geraniums, etc., in such a pit will require 
but one or two waterings during an entire winter. Plants 
thus managed will endure a very low temperature, and 
start into more vigorous growth in spring. 

At night, if cold, and during severe weather by day, it 
will be necessary to cover the glass with mats or shutters, 
lo prevent the frost from penetrating and the heat from 
being lost by radiation. 

Gkeenhouse. — In most cases, persons who are iinan- 
cially able to equip a large garden are also in position to 
desire and secure a greenhouse, which is far preferable to 
hot-beds, pits or other like devices for protecting tender 
plants. An economical house can be constructed in ac- 
cordance with the plan recommended by Peter Henderson 
some years since, and thus concisely described by YV. F. 
Massey, horticulturist of the North Carolina Experiment 
Station. 

This style of greenhouse is made with the same kind 
of sash which is used in the construction of hot-beds and 
cold frames. The house is made by setting posts in line, 
four feet apart to make the side walls. These side \v;ills 
are four feet high and ten feet apart, this being the width 
of the house. The tops of the posts should be cut to 
the slope of the roof, and a plate nailed thereon, on which 
the sashes are to rest. This plate should project inside 
and out, so as to allow of a gutter being formed on its 
outer edge, for it is desirable to have a tank inside to 
catch the rain water from the roof for watering purposes. 
The ridge pole of the roof should be cut so that the ends 
of the sashes which are to form the roof will rest on a 




o 



HOT-BEDS, COLD FEAMES AND PITS. 



9T 



shoulder and come flush with the top. Each alternate 
pair of sash is screwed fast to the ridge pole at the top 
and to the plate at the bottom, thus forming rafters and 
giving strength to the structure. The other pairs are to 
be hinged to the plate at the wall and held in place at the 
top by a hook, or by an iron strap punched with holes to 
catch on a pin fixed to the ridge pole, so that they can 
be propped up to admit air to the house. If the house is 




Section of Greenhouse. 



to be heated by an ordinary brick flue it should not be 
more than forty or fifty feet long. A door wide enough 
to admit a wheelbarrow should be in each end, and walk 
through the center. Benches are to be made on each 
side for holding soil or for placing flower-pots or boxes. 
These benches and the whole house can be constructed 
of rough lumber, with the cracks battened. The green- 
house should run north and south, and at the north end a 
shed should be made for a work room, and into which the 
furnace door is to open, so as to keep the smoke and dust 
from the house. The furnace is placed in a pit four feet 
below the level of the house, and is made of brick, with 

7 



98 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

an ordinary cast-iron door and ash pit. An arch is turned 
over the fire-box, and the flue is built from the rear end 
on a sharp ascent to the level of the floor of the house. 
It should then be built along under the side benches, on 
a slight ascent, the whole length of the house, across the 
farther end and back to the chimney over the furnace. 
The first ten or fifteen feet should always be made of 
brick, the remainder of six-inch terra cotta pipe. The 
furnace may be made to burn wood, and in that case no 
grate bars will be needed, so the fire can be regulated 
by a draft hole in the door. But a coal-burning furnace 
is far more convenient, and the tire will last longer. For 
seed -sowing purposes it is better to have the flue boxed 
in under tin 1 benches, but in this case hinged doors should 
be made along the walk, so as to let more heat out in the 
house when needed. 

A greenhouse of this character can be built 10x50 feet 
for about $150. For heating more thoroughly and satis- 
factorily than can be accomplished with the brick furnace 
above described it is best to use a boiler and circulate 
hot water or steam in iron pipes. This method of heating 
will slightly increase the cost estimated above. 



PACKING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 9 ( J 



CHAPTER VII. 

PACKING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 

Trucking in the South is an industry of comparatively 
recent years, and has not become near so extensive as 
it is conducted in most of the Northern States. However, 
the demand for early vegetables and fruits has grown 
year by year to such an extent that southern growers, 
particularly those living near the main thoroughfares, 
are endeavoring to place the products of their gardens in 
the large cities of the North as early as possible, so as 
to reap the benefits of the advanced prices before the 
less favored gardeners of the colder climates are prepared 
to harvest and market their crops. Along the Atlantic 
sea-border, and in some portions of the Gulf regions, 
market gardens are to be found which have been more 
or less profitable to the owners for many years. These 
are to be found along the Mississippi bottoms near the 
city of New Orleans; near Savannah, Georgia; Charles- 
ton, South Carolina; and Norfolk, Virginia. Whenever 
the railroads penetrating the South wake up to the fact 
that this industry adds a new source of revenue to the 
bank account of the companies, and reduce freight rates 
on vegetables and fruits, providing, also, quick and safe 
transportation to New York or elsewhere for the perish- 
able products of the gardens, a much larger number of 
men will engage in the enterprise. 

There are so many vegetables and fruits which can 
be grown to perfection only in southern climates, and 
which will always command a fair price if they could be 
promptly placed in the markets of New York or Chicago 
without incurring the ruinous freight rates demanded by 



LofC. 



100 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 

our railroads, that it would pay the market gardeners in 
the South to grow these alone; but the mild climate and 
the almost continuous growth of vegetation in the south- 
ern latitudes enable the gardener to raise most of the 
vegetables known, and of a superior quality, earlier and 
with less expense than the truck farmers iu the neigh- 
borhood of New York. It is gratifying to note, however, 
that, in a few sections of the South some of the railroads 
are making an effort to encourage trucking, and for that 
reason, in those sections, the industry is rapidly growing. 
Growing vegetables and fruits for the market is not an 
easy enterprise, and it requires more skill, knowledge and 
experience than the cultivation of the products of the 
garden for home consumption. The market must be 
closely studied, so as to know when to ship and what to 
ship in order to reap the best prices; and the gardener 
will frequently consult with honest and experienced com- 
mission merchants in regard to these important particu- 
lars. A visit to the city now and then will well repay the 
outlay and time spent iu the knowledge gained in refer- 
ence to the methods of disposing of vegetables and fruits 
and the advantage accruing to the shipper in carefully 
packing and sorting his produce. The assorting, pack- 
ing and shipping requires a degree of skill and experience 
only to be obtained after some years of actual engage- 
ment in packing and marketing the crops of the garden. 
To those who desire to try their fortunes in the profession 
of market gardening, the following outline of the re- 
quisites for a successful prosecution of the work will be of 
service: 

After the land has been properly prepared to produce 
the best quality of vegetables and fruits, and a market 
has been selected in which to dispose of the crop, the 
most important equipment is the packing-house with its 



PACKING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 101 

facilities for properly handling and securely packing the 
material with the least labor, expense and chance of in- 
jury to the crop. 

This packing-house should be located in the most con- 
venient position for handling the vegetables and fruits, 
so that the distance for hauling from the field will be 
reduced, aud at the same time easy access will be ob- 
tained to the thoroughfare leading to the depot. This 
matter, of course, can only be determined by the circum- 
stances aud facilities surrounding the location of the 
garden aud its approaches. The building should be airy, 
with ample room for all purposes for which it is con- 
structed. There must be au entrance for the crop from 
the fields and another for transporting the filled crates 
and packages to the depot for shipment. The driveway 
in both instances should be so built that there will be 
as little lifting as possible, in order to reduce to a mini- 
mum the expenditure of labor and the chance of injury to 
the tender products of the farm. 

There should be at least three compartments in the 
building; one in which to store the fruit and vegetables, 
where the temperature can be kept to a uniform degree. 
This may be called a cooling room, and is a necessity in 
the proper handling of vegetables and fruits. Some 
products of the farm would certainly spoil before reach 
ing market if packed before first being stored in the cool- 
ing room. Another advantage of this room is that it 
permits of shrinkage in some varieties of fruits before 
packing, thus reducing the trouble of loose packages 
on reaching the destination, particularly if shipped !«» ;i 
considerable distance from the farm. Another room 
should be provided for storing the crates, baskets and 
other materials used in making the packages. This room 
should be darkened, but at the same time well ventilated 
and dry, so that the wood will not stain and thus lose its 



102 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

attractive, clean, fresh looks. The remaining room should 
be large and provided with ample light and facilities for 
rapidly assorting and packing. Benches or long tables 
to hold the fruit and vegetables, to permit of the greatest 
convenience to the packers, should be arranged around 
this room, and in easy reach above them should be shelves 
containing the empty crates and baskets to be used in 
the day's operation. As rapidly as the baskets and crates 
arc packed they should be transferred to a central table, 
where the tops are wired or nailed on, and they arc con- 
veniently piled for loading on the wagons for transporta- 
tion to the depot. 

One of the indispensable requirements of the packing- 
house is cleanliness in all departments. This is necessary 
not only to insure clean condition of the fruit in the' 
crates and baskets, but also to prevent the presence of 
disease, which will surely cause much of the shipment to 
decay before it reaches the market. No vegetable or fruit 
that is at all faulty should be allowed to enter the pack- 
ing-house, if honest and first-class work is desired. 

The Crates, Boxes and Baskets. — These are now 
supplied by the trade, so that it is not necessar}^ to make 
them in the packing-houses, as was the case in former 
years. It is still the practice, however, with some 
truckers to make their own crates, and, even when they 
are purchased they come to the house " knocked down," 
requiring simply a hammer and nails to put them 
together. 

A variety of wood has been tried in making the crates, 
but experience has proven that the sap wood from the 
Georgia pine furnishes the best material, because there 
is strength, elasticity, and absence of odors so frequently 
found in other woods. 

The grape basket, illustrated in Figure 8, is the usual 
form adopted by market gardeners for displaying this 



PACKING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 



103 




Fig. 8— Fruit Basket. 



fruit. There are two sizes made, oiie holding five pounds 
and the other ten. The name of the variety of the grape 
as well as the name of the grower should be plainly 

stamped on the bas- 
ket after it is pack- 
ed. If a quantity 
of small fruit like 
strawberries is to 
be shipped to a dis- 
tance the straw- 
berry boxes are 
packed in a large 
market basket 
shown in Figure 9. 
There are also two sizes of this larger case, one contain- 
ing eight three-pound boxes, and the other eight five- 
pound boxes. T.hese are light, made of open work, so 
that ample air reaches the fruit. This method of packing- 
is greatly appreciated by the retail dealers. 

For the shipment of other kinds of fruits and vege- 
tables the crates illustrated in Figures 10 and 11 are in 
common use, particularly in the South. Figure 10 is a 
bushel crate, which holds a little more than a bushel. 
The barrel crate is 
Figure 11, which has 
a dimension of 
Il"x20"x36". 

Other styles of 
baskets and crates 
are used in different 
sections of the coun- 

Fig. — Large Market Basket. 

try, but the ones 

illustrated may be called the standard kinds for southern 

truckers, at least. In shipping potatoes the ordinary 




104 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




flour-barrel is sometimes used with holes cut iu the sides 
or ends to permit of ventilation. 

The following 
points in reference 
to crates and pack- 
ing were extracted 
from the American 
Garden, and, al- 
though they were 
written for special 
localities, they 
nevertheless are 
applicable to all 
sections of the 

country : 

J Fig. 10— Busnel Crate. 

1. The difference in the construction of the 32-quart 
strawberry crates lies wholly in the strength and varia- 
tion in the price; the cheaper grade, however, will not 

stand the h a r d 
usage it is sub- 
jected to in ship- 
ment. All fruits 
sold by the north- 
ern truckers are 
packed in these 
32-quart crates, 
such as blackber- 
ries, cranberries, 
and the like. 

2. The 45 or 60- 

pi'nt raspberry 

_. crates are more 

Fig. 11 — Barrel Crate. 

applicable to all 
purposes than the strawberry crates. They will hold 
from eight to twelve 10-pound baskets of grapes, which 




PACKING AM) MARKETING THE CROP. 



105 



arc safely and easily handled in this manner. In general 
shape and construction they are very much like (he crate 
illustrated in Figure 9. 

3. Fancy peaches are put up in pony baskets and 
crated. This will enable the < lea lei' to display the fruit 
without disturbing it from the condition in which it was 
placed in the packinghouse. Pears are also put up in 
the same manner. The expense, of course, is greater than 
that incurred in packing these fruits in barrel or bushel 
crates, but the attractive looks given to the fruit will, iu 
most instances, warrant an increase in price, which will 
compensate for the extra trouble and expense. 

4. Currants are generally shipped in quart strawberry 
baskets, ('berries are sent to market in 10-pound grape 
baskets; while choice plums find their way into the 
markets in both the quart and 5-pound grape baskets. 
The inferior grades of plums are sent out in kegs and half- 
barrels. 

5. Vegetables are shipped in all kinds of shapes. Pota- 
toes, peas, etc., are packed in boxes, barrels, baskets and 
bags. Onions are generally sent in crates, while beds, 
carrots, turnips and other root crops reach the market in 
boxes and barrels. 

6. It is a misfortune, however, that the law does not 
regulate in all States the standard sizes and styles of 
packages in which fruits and vegetables are sent to the 
market, so that the buyer would know just how much he 
is buying, but it is now in most sections of the country 
mostly guess work. 

7. The quality and the condition of the fruit or vege- 
tables when they reach the market are of prime impor- 
tance. Poor grades and bad condition will surely lose 
customers, while first-class crops, neatly and honestly 
packed, will gradually grow in favor and demand. Ex- 
cept in those instances where the customer becomes 



106 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



familiar with certain varieties and prefers them, the 
looks of the crops displayed for sale have much to do 
with its prompt disposal. For this reason the fruit and 
vegetables should be carefully graded before packing, 
and the marks placed on the crates, clearly indicating 
which are first class and which are second. This method 
honestly carried out, will establish confidence in the 
shipper, and the products of his farm will be in demand. 
Inferior grades should never be placed in the same crate 
with first-class products. Everything is to be lost by such 
method and nothing to be gained. 

The method adopted by many market gardeners in 
gathering the crop and checking the work of hired labor 



/ 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


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9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


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Z 


z 


% 


Z 


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Z 


Z 


Z 


Z 


Z 


* 


X 


Z 


Z 




CI 




cl 


vO 


* 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


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Fig. 12— Picker's Tag. 

is as follows: Each picker is provided with trays holding 
such a number of quarts, and when one of these trays is 
filled to the standard measure it is placed in charge of a 
foreman, who gives the picker a ticket or check (Figure 
12) bearing his or her name and punched to designate 
the number of quarts picked, as well as the condition of 
the fruit. The trays, as they accumulate in sufficient 
numbers at any one place in the orchard or garden, are 
loaded on suitable trucks or wagons and carried to the 
packing-house. 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 107 



CHAPTER VIII. 

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES — SPRAYING APPARATUS 
AND METHODS. 

No plant, no part of a plant is exempt from the attacks 
of insects. One devours its tender leaf as it issues from 
the ground; another preys upon the root, and the plant 
perishes; another burrows into the stem, boring it in 
every direction until the stem is broken off by the wind. 
The caterpillar preys upon the leaves when the plant gets 
more mature, while the black grub cuts off the young 
plant just as it is shooting into growth. Some feed upon 
the flowers, while others devour the matured fruit or 
seed. 

Insects are on the increase in American gardens, partly 
from the fact that the destruction of forest trees and wild 
plants has driven them to the cultivated ones for food 
(the apple-tree borer, for instance, originally subsisting 
on the thorn), partly from being constantly imported from 
all other countries from which seeds and plants are 
brought, and partly from the diminution of birds and 
other enemies by which they are naturally held in check. 

Insects are a most extensive class of animals. They 
are destitute of an internal skeleton, but possess a sort of 
external one, serving both for skin and bones, and divided 
into numerous segments connected together by slender 
points of attachment. They all have six or more articu 
lated legs, and are generally oviparous, or produced from 
eggs. They possess sight, hearing, smell, and touch at 
least — senses in common with those of the superior ani- 
mals. They do not breathe through the month or nostrils, 
but through vessels for the reception of air, called spirac- 
ula, placed along each side of the body. 



108 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Nearly all insects have four stages of existence. First, 
eggs which hatch into larvae; these change into pupae, 
where they remain dormant for a longer or shorter period, 
and from which they emerge at last as perfect insects. 
Some insects, however, bring forth their young alive, as 
well as deposit eggs. In others, as the Orthoptera, or 
grasshopper family, the young has nearly the form of a 
perfect insect. Some insects are injurious only in one 
stage of their existence; others at all times, when not in 
a dormant state. 

A knowledge of the habits and transformations of 
insects is necessary to detect how and at what period of 
their existence they can best be destroyed, or in what 
manner vegetation can best be shielded from their 
attacks. 

By many insects plants are at once destroyed; by others 
wounds are inflicted that end in a diseased condition of 
the parts affected, which is communicated to the whole 
plant. Plants in a weak or diseased state are far more 
liable to be attacked by insects than those which are 
healthy and vigorous. 

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS AND DISEASES. 

1. Insects which attack the leaves. 

2. Insects which suck the juices from plants. 

3. Insects which bore into the stem and feed upon the 
wood of the plant. 

4. Insects which attack the roots. 

5. Fungi living on the outside surfaces of plants. 
G. Fungi which penetrate the tissues. 

In the treatment of these pests a knowledge of the 
habits of the insect or fungus is necessary. The remedy 
that will destroy one group may not check another; so 
that certain general rules must be followed when efforts 
are made to combat the enemies. First determine what 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



109 



is the character of the trouble, and then use the remedy 
which experienced entomologists recommend. 

1. Insects which Attack the Lea res. — These are compara- 
tively easy to destroy by spraying poisons on the foliage, 
so that the insects will take the poison in their food; or 
the plant may be enveloped with poisonous gas which 
will cause death to the enemy. 

2. Insects which Suck the Juices from the Plants. — This 
group contains the plant lice, which puncture the tender 
bark and suck out the vital juices of the plant. They 
belong to the order of insects known as Hemiptera, or 
true bugs. Their bodies are pear shaped, and from the 
upper part of the rear end arc I wo projections from which 
a clear, sw r eetish fluid exudes. Ants and bees are ex- 
ceedingly fond of this exudation, and on those plants that 
lice infest it is quite common to see ants climbing in con- 
siderable numbers feeding on the honey thus manufac- 
tured by these lice. One remarkable fact in the life 
history of these animals is the reproduction of the young 
without the intervention of the male, and also the fact 
that the mother, while she is feeding, produces the 
living young without first laying eggs. This process of 
multiplication goes on until late in the fall, w T hen males 
are produced, which fertilize the females, and eggs are 
laid in secure places against the winter, and next spring 
these hatch out into female lice, and the process of repro- 
duction is continued without the laying of eggs. It can 
be readily understood, therefore, how rapidly the multi- 
plication of these animals will take place, and the plant 
must soon succumb, unless measures are used to kill the 
lice at once. During the winter months all rubbish must 
be burned in order to destroy the eggs laid by the lice the 
preceding season. When the plants are growing they must 
be constantly examined and all lice killed. One female 
deprived of her life early in the season is equivalent to 



HO GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 

the destruction of a great many several weeks later, be- 
cause of the rapid multiplication of the animals, as 
already stated. The use of poisons like Paris green will 
produce but little, if any, effect upon these insects, since 
they get their food by inserting their sucking organs into 
the tissues of the plants out of reach of the poison, which 
is only on the surface. Spraying with kerosene emulsion 
and enveloping the plant with gas will accomplish much, 
however, in the destruction of the lice. For the prepara- 
tion of this emulsion see table opposite page 184. 

3. Insects which Bore into the Stem and Feed upon the Wood\ 
of the Plant. — These insects must be circumvented by 
placing on the body of the plant preparations which will 
prohibit the deposit of eggs; or by washing the trunk 
with poisons which will destroy the young grubs as they 
cut into the bark. A good preparation is a glue contain- 
ing Paris green. After the insect has entered the tree a 
wire must be used to destroy it, or the place attacked 
may be cut and the grub destroyed; but, of course, the 
tree is considerably injured by such treatment, particu- 
larly if the insect has penetrated to considerable depths. 

4. Inserts which Attack the Roots. — The treatment of 
plants which arc subjected to the attacks of these animals 
is almost hopeless because of the nature of the soil and 
the danger of destroying the delicate roots by the use of 
strong chemicals. The best method now known is crop 
rotation, or the starving of the animals by the cultivation 
of those plants known to be exempt from their attacks. 

5. Fungi Lirintj on the Outside Surfaces of Plants. — These 
comprise the mildews and moulds generally noticed on 
the young, tender shoots and leaves of many plants when 
they are in the condition for the favorable growth of 
these diseases. The remedy is in the use of sulphur vapor. 

6. Fungi which Penetrate the Tissues. — These are the 
rusts, smuts, spot-fungi, etc., found growing on the tender 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. HI 

portions of many of our cultivated and wild plants. After 
they penetrate the tissues it is next to impossible to de- 
stroy them without also killing the plant. The treatment 
must be applied when the fungus is young, and the 
parts of the plant susceptible to the attack must be 
covered with the chemical which will prevent the growth 
of the fungus. When plants become thoroughly infested 
with this disease the best thing to do is to remove them 
and burn them. In the case of trees vigorous pruning 
sometimes prevents the spread of the trouble, and may 
eventually eliminate the disease entirely. The reader is 
referred to table opposite page 184 for the methods 
recommended for the treatment of fungous diseases. 

Preventive measures are of more value than remedial, 
in protecting plants from insects. Among those most 
likely to be of value, are the following: 

Rotation of Crops. — Each species of insect generally 
feeds on the same species of plant, or at least on plants of 
the same natural family; hence a constant change of crop 
prevents the forthcoming brood from finding their proper 
food, and many of them perish. This is, however, more 
applicable in the case of field crops than in orchards and 
gardens. 

Decaying Trees. — Destroy all decaying trees in the 
neighborhood of orchards and gardens, as they are often 
a refuge, and tend to propagate insects destructive to the 
neighboring crops. 

Scraping of the rough bark of trees and washing them 
with tobacco water, lime water, or a wash of lime, sulphur 
and clay, or a solution of potash, destroys the hiding 
places of insects, and many of the insects themselves 
which infest trees. 

Birds and Other Animals. — The encouragement of 
insectivorous birds and other animals, instead of their 
thoughtless and injurious destruction, is one of the most 



112 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



•I 



9Jm 






;9 »T 






promising methods of lessening the 
insect tribes. A single pair of breed- 
ing swallows, Bradley has calculated, 
destroy over three thousand worms 
in a week. Toads live almost entirely 
upon insects, and do not injure plants. 
A large class of insects also live en- 
tirely upon insects that are injurious 
to plants, and should be encouraged. 

Lime and Salt. — Dressing the soil 
with lime, sowing in autumn six or 
eight bushels of salt to the acre, turn- 
ing over the soil and exposing it to 
frost just before winter, or during the 
winter months when the ground is 
open, are all found to be beneficial. 
Rolling the surface soil smooth when 
crops are planted destroys the hiding- 
places of many insects, and renders 
them less destructive. 

Any insect peculiarly injurious 
must be watched as to its habits, mode 
of feeding, and its transformations, in 
order to discover where it may be most 
successfully attacked. 

As healthy plants are less subject to 
attack, keep the ground in good order, 
sow good seed, cultivate thoroughly, 
and the crop will be less endangered. 

Hand-Picking. — In some cases, the 
only effectual mode is hand-picking. 
If the leaf-roller, the beetle, or the 

Fig. 13— Ear of pop-corn ' ' 

showing work of An- grub is crushed under foot, by prevent- 
Kiley 01 Report u^s' * n » reproduction a thousand enemies 
Dept. Agn. are destroyed at once. 



T2\ a • J"i 



v; 



Sfip 



lrl?l 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



113 



Mice may be caught in traps, or poisoned with arsenic; 
but the latter is dangerous if fowls or children have ac- 
cess to the garden. 

Moles are often very troublesome in undermining beds 
of cuttings or young plants in search of worms and in- 
sects. They may be caught in various traps sold for the 
purpose, but by putting tarred sticks in their burrows 
they will be driven from them. Salting the soil is fatal 
to many insects that are the food of the mole. 

Hakes and Uabbits are very destructive to trees and 
garden vegetables in all country places, and even in towns 
we do not es- 
cape; they can 
be repelled by a 
t i g h t bo a r d 
fence, or a close 
hedge of the 
.Macartney rose. 
Choice trees can 
be bound up in 
straw d u r i u g 
the winter, or in 
an envelope of 
chestnut bark 
slipped over the 
stem. 




Fig. 14 — Sitotroga cerealella. a, Eggs, b, Larva at 
work, c, Larva, side view, d, Pupa, e, Moth. 
/, Same, side view. Chittenden, Div. Ent. U. S. 
Dept. Agri. Farmers' Bulletin No. 45. 



In the following list will be found some of the most 
troublesome insects and fungi prevalent in the South. 
This list is not complete, and the effort has been made 
simply to give the most common forms of pests; and, 
therefore, if the reader desires more extended informa- 
tion upon this very important subject he is referred to 
works devoted to entomology and pathology. 

Angumois Moth (Sitotroga cerealella, Oliv.). — In the 
adult form of this insect it is a moth one-half inch across 



114 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



Its body has a shiny appear- 



and the wings are fringed with delicate hair-like 



the expansion of the wings, 
ance, 

appendages. This insect is one of the most destructive to 
stored grain to be found in the South. The larva is about 
one-fourth of an inch in length, of a light color, and is 
covered with numerous short hairs. The pupa is some- 
what shorter than the caterpillar and of a darker color. 




Fig. 15 — Schizoneura lanigera. a, Agamic female, b, Lar- 
val louse, c, Pupa, d, Winged female, with antenna 
enlarged above. All greatly enlarged and with waxy 
excretion removed. Marlatt, Div. Ent. IT. S. Dept. 
Agri. Cir. 20. 

Either before the grain is taken from the field or after it 
is stored the moth deposits her eggs between the rows 
of grain on the cob. A few days after these hatch, and 
the young caterpillars penetrate the grain and feed on the 
starchy material. Within four or five weeks this larva 
passes into the pupa state, and several days after it comes 
forth as a moth. In the far South there are as many as 
eight broods each year. 

Remedy. — The bins should be made close, and when 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



115 



the presence of the insect is detected the grain must be 
fumigated with carbon bisulphide. This is highly in- 
flammable, and fire must not be brought near it while 
fumigation is going on. 

Woolly Aphis, or Apple-tree Blight (Schizoneura 
lanigera), is found upon the 
apple tree. The female is a 
small, egg-shaped, dull red- 
dish-brown insect, with a 
black head, dusted with 
white powder, and with a 
tuft of white down grow- 
ing from the hind part of 
the back, which makes a 
colony of these insects look 
like a small patch of white 
down. Each tuft contains 
a female and her young, 
which last are of a pale 
color. In Europe, trees are 
often white with these in- 
sects. Here they are gen- 
erally found at the base of 
twigs and suckers from the 
trunk, or where a wound in 
the bark is healing. Scrape 
the bark of the tree, if 
rough, and wash the tree, 
filling every crevice with 
kerosene or a solution of 
two pounds potash to seven 
quarts of water, or Harris' Composition — two parts soft 
soap and eight of water, with lime enough to make a thick 
whitewash. Sulphuric acid, mixed with ten times its bulk 
of water, is also recommended. 




Fig. 16 — Schizoneura lanigera. a, Root 
of young tree, illustrating deforma- 
tion, b, Section of root with 
aphides clustered over it. c, Root 
louse; female, a and b, Natural 
size ; c, much enlarged. Marlatt. 
Div. Ent. L T . S. Dept. Agri. Cir. 20. 



116 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



Apple Root-Blight.— The Woolly Aphis is like the 
Grape Phylloxera in producing a root form also. The 
attack of this insect on the roots of the apple make wart- 
like excrescences, in the crevices of which are contained 
minute, yellow lice, often accompanied with larger 
winged ones of a black color, having their bodies covered 
with white, cotton-like matter. The wounds made upon 
the root by these insects produce an increased flow of sap 




a b c d 

Fig. 17 — Saperda Candida, a, Larva from side ; b, from 
above, c, Female beetle, d, Pupa. All enlarged 
one-third. Chittenden, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. 
Cir. 32. 

to the spot affected, and these morbid enlargements are 
the result. Nursery trees affected should have their roots 
soaked in soapsuds before planting. Trees affected in the 
fruit garden may have their roots partly bared, and a 
liberal application of charcoal dust, ashes, or soapsuds, 
poured upon the warty excrescences. Their presence 
gives the affected trees a yellow, unhealthy appearance. 
The application of carbon bisulphide to the ground 
around the roots is probably the best remedy known. 
Tobacco ground fine and placed on the ground and then 
well wet with water is excellent. But if the tr^o is 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



117 




seriously injured by the attack of this insect it will be 
best to root up the plant and burn it, and use the place 
for some other plant not susceptible to the attack of the 
Aphis. 

Apple-Tree Borers (Saperda Candida; Chrysobothris 
femorata, Fab.). — The first insect in its adult form is a 
beetle, pale brown with two yellow stripes down ils back. 
The borer, or larval stage, 
is a grub with a large 
rounded head and sharp 
jaws. The eggs arc de- 
posited near the base of 
the tree and the grub bores 
into the bark as soon as 
hatched, twelve to eighteen 
days after the eggs are 
laid. The borer remains in 
the trunk of the tree about 
three years, cutting a tor- 
tuous channel, sometimes 
completely girdling the 
tree and killing it. The latter insect is also a beetle in its 
parent form, but is somewhat smaller with a greenish- 
black back and copper color on the under side. The eggs 
are deposited one at the time in the crevices of the bark 
on the trunk and larger limbs, and are hatched within 
two weeks. The grub does not remain in the tree as long- 
as the saperda, not more than two years, and it conse- 
quently does not bore as far into the wood. 

Plants Injured. — Apple, pear, and quince. 

Remedies. — The remedy is preventive, because when 
the insects once reach the interior of the trunk the tree 
becomes so seriously damaged it will seldom recover. 
If the grub has just entered and the orifice can be dis- 
covered a wire run into the hole will soon end the work 



Fig. 18 — Chrysobothris femorata. a, 
Larva. 6, Beetle, c, Head of male. 
d, Pupa, twice natural size. Chit- 
tenden, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. 
Agri. Cir. 32. 



118 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

of the enemy. The best preventive is a soap and corrosive 
sublimate wash made as follows: 

Corrosive sublimate, 1 ounce. 

Soft soap, 10 gallons. 

Alcohol, 1 pint. 

Water, to make a stiff paint. 

Dissolve the sublimate in the alcohol and add the soap, 
and then the water. Apply this wash to the tree early in 
May, and renew within twenty days, or earlier, as long as 
the beetles are seen flying about. Coat the trunk and the 
large limbs. 

Apple-Tree Tent Caterpillar (Glisiocampa Ameri- 
cana). — The moth is a reddish night-flying insect which 
lays her eggs, 200 or more, around small twigs in early 
summer, and then dies. These eggs remain unhatched 
until the following spring, when the tree begins to bud, 
when they hatch small caterpillars, which feed upon the 
leaves of the tree. The caterpillars spin a web in the 
forks of the tree, where they remain at rest during the 
hot part of the day. These web tents are quite dense and 
seldom attain a larger size than one foot. 

Plants Injured. — Apple, cherry, and other trees. 

Remedies. — Fasten to a long pole a wad of cotton 
dipped in kerosene oil and burn the webs while the cater- 
pillars are resting therein. 

Blister Beetle (Epicaute vittata, Fab.). — This insect is 
also called the " potato bug," but it must not be confused 
Avith the Colorado bug. The beetle is yellow, with two 
black stripes down each wing cover. It is about one-half 
inch long. The larvae feed on eggs of other insects, and 
the beetle lives on the leaves of plants. 

Plants Injured. — Irish potatoes, beets. 

Remedip:s. — Hand-picking and spraying with Paris 
green or London purple. 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



119 



Codling Moth; Apple Worm {Carpocapsa pomonella, 
Linn.).— The adult is a small brown moth, which flies 
generally at night, and deposits her eggs singly on the 
surface of young fruit just after the flower falls. When 

these eggs hatch 
the young worm 
cuts its way into 
the apple, usu- 
ally at the blos- 
som end, and re- 
mains here feed- 
ing until full 
grown, w h i c h 
occurs within a 
few days. The 
worm then finds 
its way out, de- 
scends to the 
ground by a web 
or otherwise, 
and passes into 
the pupa state 
under the pro- 
jections of the 
bark at the base 
of the tree. In 
two or three 
weeks another 
brood of moths 
is formed, and 
other apples are 
attacked in the same manner. The larvae mature about 
the time in autumn when the ripe apples are gathered. 
In the illustration the two lower insects are enemies of 




Fig. 



19 — Codling Moth. Carpocapsa pomonella. 
Div. P:ntotnology U. S. Dept. Agri. 



120 



GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



the codling moth and are named Pimpla annulipes and 
Macrocentrus delicatus. 

Plants Injured. — Apple, pear. 

Remedies. — All defective fruits which fall to the 
ground, the loose bark and trash should be cleaned up 
and burned. Spray with arsenites such as Paris green 
and London purple. For the formulae see the end of this 
chapter. 

Corn-Ear Worm; Boll Worm (Heliothis armigera, 
Hbn.). — This is the well-known cotton-boll worm, and the 

damage it com- 
mits in all sec- 
tions of the 
South cannot be 
estimated. The 
adult is a moth 
varying in color 
from yellowish 
gray to a dark 
yellow, and on 
the outer wings 
is a broad band, 
dark on the out- 
er margins, with 
a white spot on 
the inside. When 
the wings are 
spread the insect 
is from one and 
a half to two 
inches from tip 
to tip. The worm is about one inch long, and it trans- 
forms into the pupa below the surface of the ground. 

Plants J a jural. — Cotton bolls, corn, tomatoes, squashes, 
tobacco, peas, beans, and potatoes. 




Fig. 20— Boll Worm or Corn-Ear Worm. Heliothis 
armigera. Div. Ent. Dept. Agri. 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



121 



Remedies. — Hand-picking and rotation in crops will 
greatly reduce the number of insects. The use of a solu- 
tion of hellebore, three ounces to sixteen gallons of hot 
water, applied without dilution, is also recommended. 

Cabbage Worm (Pieris rapae, Linn.). — This is a foreign 
insect i n t r o d u c e d ^ 

many years since 
from Europe. It is 
well known in all sec- 
tions of the United 
States where the cab- 
bage plant is culti- 
vated. The butterfly 
is light cream color, 
about two inches 
across the expansion 
of the wings. The worm is green with a yellow stripe ex- 
tending down the back, with small yellow spots on each 
side. The greatest damage is committed by the worm. 
It eats the leaves, destroying them completely. There are 
two broods in the South. 

Plants Injured. — Cabbages. 

Remedies. — Paris green, one-fourth of a pound to a 
barrel of water, sprayed on the plants. 




Fig. 21 — Pieris protodice. a, Larva, b, Chrys- 
alis. Riley, Div. Ent. TJ. S. Dept. 
Agri. Report, 1889. 




Fig. 22 — Pieris protodice. Male 
butterfly. Riley, Div. Ent. 
U. S. Dept. Agri. Report, 1883. 



Fig. 23 — Pieris protodice. Female but- 
terfly. Riley, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. 
Agri. Report, 1883. 



Pieris protodice and /\ monuste are two other species of 
the cabbaue worm which are also found in the South 



122 



GAKDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 



destructive to the plant. They resemble in many respects 
the first described, differing in coloring and size, and the 
same remedies? are applicable. 

Cabbage Louse (Aphis brassicae. Linn.). — A green plant 
louse, occurring on the under surface of the leaves, and, 




F. Detmers. del. 



Fig. 24 — Aphis brassicae. a, Winged male, magnified. 
b, Head and antenna of same, more magnified, c, 
Viviparous female, magnified, d, Head and antenna 
of same, more magnified. Insect Life, Vol. Ill, Div. 
Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. 

when in -large numbers, seriously injuring the plant by 
sucking its juices, causing the leaves to wither and die. 

Plants Injured. — Cabbage, cauliflower, and similar 
plants. 

Remedies. — Pyrethrum powder mixed in water and 
sprayed on the plants will generally destroy these insects. 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



123 



Kerosene emulsion diluted to one-half its usual strength 
and applied with the sprayer is also excellent. Tobacco 
solution is also recommended, and made as follows: 
Powdered tobacco three pounds, boiled in ten gallons of 
water for one hour, applied without dilution. 

Cabbage Worm (Plusia brassicae, Riley). — This is one 
of the common insects injurious to the cabbage and other 
plants. It is a green 
worm about one inch 
long, usually with 
light stripes down 
its body; these 
stripes, however, are 
sometimes wanting. 
The worm raises the 
center of its body in 
moving over the 
leaves, and for this 
reason is called a 
"looper." The moth 
flies at night, but 








'*&:■ 



^C 



may be seen some- F i g . 25— Plusia brasbicde. a, Moth. 6, Full 
times during cloudy grown larva, c, Pupa with its cocoon, natu- 

weather flyino- over ral size- Howard > Div - Ent - u - s - De v*>- 

' ' te . , , Agri. Year Book, 1898. 

the cabbage field. 

The eggs are greenish yellow, and are deposited on the 

upper or lower sides of the leaves. This insect eats the 

leaves, and at times bores into the head of the cabbage. 

There are about six broods during the season. 

Plants Injured. — Cabbage, celery, cauliflower, lettuce, 
turnips, tomatoes. 

Remedies. — Paris green or London purple will kill the 
plusia, but these poisons must not be used after the cab- 



124 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



bage begins to head. The kerosene emulsion is the safest 
remedy. 



Soft soap, 
Kerosene oil, 
Water, 



1 pound. 

1 pint. 

2 quarts. 



Boil the water and soap solution, remove from the fire 
and add the kerosene. Churn the solution until the ingre- 
dients are thoroughly mixed, and the oil then will not 
separate after cooling. Dilute with its bulk of water, and 
spray with a force pump so as to strike the insects firmly. 

Cut Worms (Peridromia saucia; Mamestra trifolii). — 
There arc several genera of these destructive insects 




Fig. 26 — Peridromia saucia. a, Adult, b, c, d, Full grown 
larvae, e, f, Eggs. All natural size except e, which 
is greatly enlarged. Howard, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. 
Agri. Year Book, 1898. 

found distributed throughout the United States, and the 
larvae, or worms, are recognized by the cylindrical, naked 
form, marked with longitudinal stripes, and, when dis- 
turbed, the worms curl up and remain quite motionless 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



L25 



for a short while. The adults are moths, rather small and 
of an ashy hue. The eggs are laid on stems of low plants 
in late spring, and, when the worms hatch, they descend 
into the ground. When winter approaches they tind 
refuge under logs or other objects. The warmth of the 
following spring brings 
them forth, and they ;it 
once begin feeding on 
the tender plants within 
reach. In a few weeks 
they transform into the 
pupa state and then into 
the moth. 

Plants In j ii red. — Near- 
ly all varieties of vege- 
tables. 

Remedies. — Dr. Riley 
recommends the distri- 
bution of poisoned leaves 
over the surface of the 
ground before setting 
out the plants, and re- 
peating this operation. 
The leaves are to be 
poisoned with Paris 
green or London purple. 

In the use of these poisons, however, chickens and other 
domestic animals must not be allowed to eat the leaves, 
because death will result. H^nd-picking while the 
worms are feeding, or digging for them, is effective. 

Cucumber Beetle (Diabrotica vittata, Fab.). — This in- 
sect causes great trouble to the gardener, because it 
makes its attacks when the plants are quite young, by 
eating holes in the leaves and causing the entire plant to 




Fig. 27 — Mamesira trifolii. a, h, Larva. 
c, Pupa, d, Moth, e, Wing of same. 
f, Anal segments of pupa. Riley, 
Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Report, 
1883. 



126 



GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 



wither and die. The beetle is small, about one-sixth of 
an inch in length, yellow in color with a black head and 
three stripes running down its back. The grubs also 
cause considerable damage to the roots of plants. 
Plants Injured. — Cucumbers, melons, squashes. 

Remedies. — Application of dry Paris green to the 
leaves of the plant. Kerosene emulsion has also been 
successfully used. The cucumbers and melons, when 
planted on a small scale, may be protected until large 
enough to resist the attacks of the insect, by covering 

them with mosquito 
netting. Use of to- 
bacco and dusting 
the plant with pyre- 
thrum have also 
been recommended. 
Colorado Potato 
Beetle (Dori/pliora 
decemlineata, Say). — 
This is a common 

Fig. 28 — Diabrotica vittata. a, Beetle, b, Larva. ^ 

c, Pupa, d, Side view of anal segment, potato, and is easily 
Chittenden, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. recognized by the 
" bright striped condi- 

tion of its body. It is small, and oval in shape. It is a 
voracious insect, and eats the entire plant. 
Plants Injured. — Irish potatoes and its kind. 
Remedies. — Application of Paris green or London 
purple, either in the dry state or sprayed on the plants. 

Canker Worm {Anisopteryx pometaria, Harr, or fall 
canker worm; Paleacrita vernata, Peck, or spring canker 
worm). — The two species of this insect are strikingly 
alike, and, to the unpracticed eye, they may be readily 




INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



127 



termed one and the same insect. The worms are gen- 
erally called " measuring worms/' because of the peculiar 
bending of the body in moving from place to place. The 
eggs are deposited in late fall by a wingless insect some- 
what resembling a spider. 
The worms are green- 
brown in color, and they 
feed on the leaves and 
flowers. 

Plants Injured. — Apple, 
plum, cherry, elm. 

Re medies. — Spraying 
with Bordeaux mixture, 
to which Paris green has 
been added. This appli- 
cation must not be made 
while the blossoms are 




Fig. 29 — Anisopleryx pometaria. a, b, 
Egg. c, d, Dorsal and side views of 
larval segment, enlarged, e, Egg- 
mass. /, Larva, g, Female pupa, 
natural size, h, Anal tubercle, en- 
larged. Riley, Div. Ent. IT. S. 
Dept. Cir. 9. 



opening, because the tender parts of the flower will be 
injured by the Bordeaux mixture. 

Grape Vine Fidia (Fidia viticida, Walsh). — A beetle 
about one-quarter of an inch long, of a brown color and 
covered with dense light 
yellow hairs. It attacks ^^ J3? 
the grape leaves by eat- 
ing irregular holes in 
them. When the insect is 
disturbed it falls to the 
ground and feigns death. 
The eggs are laid in the 
cracks of the bark some 
distance above the ground. The larvae, when hatched, 
fall to the ground and bore into the earth to feed on the 
tender roots of the vine. They remain below the surface 
feeding on the roots and in the pupa state until the fol- 




Fig. 30 — Anisopleryx pometaria. a, Male 
moth, b, Female, natural size, c, 
Joints of female antenna. (/, Joints 
of female abdomen, enlarged. Riley, 
Div. Ent. IT. S. Dept. Agri. Cir. 9. 



128 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



lowing June, when the beetles emerge to destroy the 
foliage. 

Remedy. — Spraying with arsenical compounds (arsenic 
and lime used in the strength of one pound to 150 gallons 
of water) will destroy the beetle. This spraying must be 
done early, so as to avoid the danger to the fruit. The 




Fig. 31 — Fidia t itidda. a, Beetle, b, Eggs represented natural size under 
fold of bark, and much enlarged at side, c, Young larva, d, Full grown 
larva, e, Pupa. /, Injury to leaf by beetles, g, Injury to roots by larvae, 
i, In part, and/ and g natural size, rest much enlarged. Marlatt, Div. 
Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Year Book, 1895. 

larvae may be destroyed by injecting carbon bisulphide 
into the ground, or by wetting the soil with a kerosene 
emulsion diluted nine times. A gallon of this solution 
is poured in a hole around the vine, and an hour later 
washed down to greater depths. 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



129 



Grape Leaf Folder (Desmia maculalis, Westw.).— 
"One of the noticeable features of a vineyard, particu- 
larly in midsummer and later, is the many folded loaves, 
the interiors of which have been skeletonized. This is 
especially evident with thick-leaved varieties, the 
whitish under surface contrasting strongly with the thick 
green of the upper. If the leaf be unfolded, it will be 
found to contain a verv 



active, wriggling, 
greenish larva, a little 
less than an inch long, 
which is apt to spring 
out of the fold and fall, 
or hang by a thread. 
The leaf itself will be 
found to be attached 
to the folded part by 
means of numerous lit- 
tle cords of silk. If the 
larva is full grown, the 
interior of the leaf will 
be thoroughly skele- 
tonized and soiled 
with accumulated ex- 
crements. The fold al- 
most invariably brings the upper sides of the leaf to- 
gether, the larva feeding, therefore, on what would be 
the upper surface of the leaf. The larva transforms to a 
reddish-brown chrysalis usually within a much smaller 
fold of the edge of the leaf, but sometimes within the 
larger larval fold. The moth, which, daring the summer, 
issues in a few days, expands about an inch, and is a 
shining opalescent black, with wings bordered with white 
and marked with white spots, as in the illustration, a 
slight variation being noted between the males and 
9 




Fig. 32 — Desmia nin<-i<l<tVix. a, Male moth. 
//, Female, c, Larva, d, Head and tho- 
racic segments of same, enlarged. 
e, Pupa. /, Tip of pupa, enlarged. 
g, Grape leaf folded by larva. Mar- 
latt, Diy. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Year 
Book, 1895. 



130 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



females. There are two (or in the South, three) broods 
each summer, the last brood hibernating in the leaves." 
(Marlatt.) 

Remedies. — Crushing the insect in the folds of the 
leaves early in the season is the sure way to get rid of the 
trouble. If this method is pursued systematically each 
day the task is not difficult, because the folded leaves are 
readily detected, and the remedy is certainly effectual. 




Fig. 33 — Haltica chalybea. a, Beetle, b, Larva, c, Larvae and beetle on foliage. 
d, Injury to buds, e, Beetles killed by fungus, a and b, Much enlarged, 
rest natural size. Marlatt, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Year Book, 1895. 

Burn all of the rubbish in the fall found on the ground 
around the vines, and in this way many larvae will be 
destroyed, which will otherwise pass through the winter 
in these protected places and come forth at the opening 
of spring to renew the attack on the plants. 

Grape Vine Flea Beetle (Haltica chalybea, 111). — This 
beetle appears on the grape vine very early in the season 
and feeds on the young branch buds, thus greatly retard- 
ing the growth of the vine. Sometimes when the insects 
are in great numbers the vine is killed to the roots. 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



131 



The beetle is of a shining, bluish-green color, one-fifth of 
an inch long and active in its movements. The eggs are 
deposited on the under sides of the leaves and hatch 
within a few days a number of brown larvae, which feed 
on the upper surfaces of the leaves, cutting small round 
holes. These larvae feed until the first of June, when 
they descend into the earth and transform into beetles 
about the first of July. These feed on the leaves until 
fall, when they seek pro- 
tected places, where they 
pass the winter. 

Plants Attacked.— Vir- 
ginia creeper, alder, plum 
trees, grape vines. 

Remedies. — R e m o v e 
and burn all leaves and 
rubbish under the vines 
in the fall. In the spring 
spray the canes and the 
young foliage with a solu- 
tion of Paris green (one 
pound to 150 gallons or 
water). Early in the 




spring the beetles are 



Fig. 34 — Murgantia histrionica. a, 
Young, b, Half grown, c, Egg 
cluster, d, Same, from side, e, 
Same, from above. /, Adult, wings 
closed, g, Same, wings open, c, /', 
(j, natural size ; a, h, slightly en- 
larged; d, e, considerably enlarged. 
Howard, Div. Ent. II. S. Dept. 
Agri Cir. 10. 

rather sluggish, and they 

may be shaken on to cloths which arc saturated with 
kerosene. They will die as soon as they come in contact 
with the kerosene. 

Harlequin Cabba.ge Bug (Murgantia histrionica, 
Hahn). — This insect is also known in some sections of the 
South as the " Lincoln bug." The full-grown insect is 
striped with orange and black; it is about one-half inch 
long, of an oval, flattened form. The eggs are laid and 
hatched within two or three davs, and the bugs at once 



132 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



begin extracting the juices from the plant and continue 
to do so throughout their entire life. 

Plants Injured. — Cabbage, mustard, turnips, rutabaga, 
radish. 

Remedies. — The only sure remedy is hand-picking in 
the early spring, when the first bugs are noticed. Radish 
and rutabaga seed might be sown to serve as catch plants, 
and as soon as the bugs are detected on these plants 

vigorous spraying 
with kerosene emul- 
sion and hand-pick- 
ing will soon greatly 
reduce the pest. The 
ordinary application 
of Paris green fre- 
quently fails to kill 
them, because they 
live by sucking the 
juices and not eating 
the leaves, hence the 
poisons do not enter 
their bodies when 
sprayed on the sur- 
faces of the plants. 
June Beetle; White Grub (Lachhosterna fusca, Riley). 
The beetles fly about during the months of May and June 
feeding on young and tender twigs of fruit trees. The 
work of destruction is done at night. This beetle is well 
known to children, who delight in catching and imprison- 




Fig. 35 — June Bug. Lachnosterna fusca. Riley, 
Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. 



ing it with a string to hear its buzzing sound. 



The eggs 



are laid about the roots of grass and, when hatched, the 
grubs feed on the roots of young plants for three years 
before they come forth in the winged state. 

riant* Injured. — Peach, cherry, fig, strawberry. 

Remedies. — Fall plowing to bring the grubs to the sur- 



INSECTS, FUNOI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



133 



It is well recognized by the 



face and expose them to fowls and cold weather. Hand- 
picking in the evening and early morning when the beetle 
makes its appearance on the trees. A vessel containing 
kerosene is held under the limbs and the beetles are 
shaken into it. 

Leaf-Footed Plant Louse (Leptoglossus phyllopus, 
Linn.). — This has become a very common insect in the 
South, and it commits its damage by sucking the juices 
from plants and fruits 
chocolate color of the 
body and leaf-like form 
of the shanks. The 
e g g s are deposited 
along the ribs of the 
leaves. It is found in 
most portions of the 
Gulf region. 

/'hurls Injured. — Cu- 
curbits, sweet pota- 
toes, watermelons, pe- 
can trees, pear, peach, 
strawberry, Irish pota- 
toes, orange (first came into prominence in the South as 
a pest on the orange trees*). 

Remedies. — Hand-picking is the certain remedy, but 
many of the younger forms can be destroyed by a free 
and frequent use of kerosene emulsion. 

Melon Louse (Aphis gossypii, Glover). — This insect is 
called "cotton louse," or "orange aphis." There are three 
forms found on the plants — viz.: (1) the " nymph," or the 
recently hatched lice, which are very small and of a 
greenish-yellow color; (2) wingless females, yellow in 




Fig. SQ—Lepfor/lossus phyllopus. Twice 
natural size. Chittenden, Div. Ent. 
U. S. Dept. Agri. Bulletin No. 19. 



* F. H. Chittenden in Bulletin 19, n. s., U. S. Dept. Agri., Div. Ent. 



134 



GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 



color; (3) winged females, quite small, ovate with trans- 
parent wings containing yellow veins. 

Plants Injured. — Red clover, orange, melon, purslane, 
morning-glory, cotton, pear, dwarf bean. 

Remedies. — Spraying with kerosene emulsion and 
pyrethrum. 

Melon Worm; Melon Borer (Margaronia hyalinata, 
Linn.). — These worms bore into the melon and eat long, 

irregular holes, caus- 
ing the rind to sour 
and decay. The eggs 
are laid on the vines 
early in the season 
by a moth with 
w h i t e transparent 
wings . containing 
black borders. The 
first brood hatched 
feeds on the vines 
a n d leaves, while 
the second and fol- 
lowing broods de- 
stroy the fruit. 

Plants Injured. — 
Melons, cucumbers. 

Remedies. 
Spraying of Paris 
green during the 
time the first brood 
is eating. After the worms enter the fruit, poisoning will 
not avail, and it will become necessary to destroy the 
fruit infested. 

The Peach-Tree Borer (Sannina exitiosa). — The moth 
conies abroad from midsummer until October. Its body 




Fig. 37 — Margaronia lujaUnata. Larva. Co- 
coons and adults. Cornstock, Div. Ent. 
U. S. Dept. Agri. 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



135 



is of steel-blue color, with an orange band around the mid- 
dle of the abdomen of the female. Her wings are blue, 
while those of the male are clear and glossy. The eggs arc 
deposited the latter part of summer, at the base of the 
trunk, on the soft bark; when hatched they bore their 
way under the bark, sometimes proceeding upwards 
along the trunk, at other times downward into the root. 
Its presence is made known in spring by the effusion of 
gum; as it does not penetrate the wood, it is easily traced 
by its holes under the bark. The worm is soft, white, with 




Fig. 38 — Sannina exitiosa. a, Adult female, b, Adult 
male, c, Full grown larva, d, Female pupa, e, Male 
pupa, f, Pupa skin extruded partially from cocoon. 
All natural size. Marlatt, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. 
Agri. Cir. 17. 

a tawny, yellowish-red head, and sixteen feet, growing 
to over half an inch in length. It forms a tough, pod-like 
cocoon on the side of the root, jutting just above the sur- 
face. Remedies are various. Haul the earth from the 
collar of the tree, clean away the gum, and cut out the 
grub with a knife and kill it; or pour scalding water into 
his haunts from the spout of a tea-kettle, which will kill 
the grub and benefit the tree; leave the basin about the 
root of the tree open, and re-examine a few days later, 
as some of the worms may have escaped. Where the 
mercury does not usually sink below 8° during the win- 
ter, it is best to leave the collar of the tree uncovered 



136 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

and exposed to the action of frost during winter. Tn 
spring a small mound of ashes, or slaked lime, or even 
earth, should be placed about the base of the trunk, which 
will render the borer less likely to attack the tree. This 
should be removed or spread out around the tree in 
autumn. The trees should be closely examined in autumn 
and spring. There are also certain washes recommended 
to prevent the insect from entering the tree. Two may 
be mentioned. The first is very poisonous, and must be 
used with great care: 

1 — Soft soap, 10 gallons. 

Corrosive sublimate, 1J ounces. 

Alcohol, 1 pint. 

Dissolve the sublimate in the alcohol and add the soap. 

2 — Sour or buttermilk, 10 gallons. 

Hydraulic cement, 10 pounds. 

These washes must be put on with a brush, repeating 
every two weeks until after the moth disappears. Apply 
the solution from below the ground to several feet above. 

The Onion-Fly (Phorbia ceparum, Meiger) is a native of 
Europe, of late years becoming common in many Ameri- 
can gardens, and wherever. found is very destructive to 
the crop. The parent insect is a small ash gray fly, about 
half the size of the common house-fly. The female lays 
her eggs on the leaves, when they are very young, close 
to the earth. As soon as the maggots hatch, which is 
when the young plants are about the size of a quill, they 
descend between the coats of the onion to its base, feed- 
ing upon the bottom part of the bulb, which soon becomes 
rotten, when the worm leaves it, to enter the earth and 
complete its transformations. Figure 39 represents the 
larva of the natural size at a and at b, magnified several 
times. Figure 40 shoAvs the way in which the insects 
work upon the young plant. In Figure 41 the perfect 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



137 



insect is given, the natural size of which is indicated by 
the cross lines, and in the same figure the magnified pupa 
or chrysalis is shown at d, and the actual size at c. 

Remedies. — These insects increase so rapidly that un- 
less destroyed at their first appearance, which is shown 
by the leaves drooping and turning yellow, it is almost 
impossible to eradicate them. Such plants should be at 
once pulled up, and with the soil in which they grew, 
burned, which will prevent their increase. Applications 
of soot or salt upon the beds, of lime water, stale urine, 




Fig. 39. 



Fig. 41. 



and tobacco water, are also employed, and beds strewn 
with tine charcoal are said to be less liable to attack. It 
is difficult, however, to reach the insect, except by pulling 
up the bulb. It is said that removing the earth from the 
onion bulbs as soon as growth has well commenced will 
prevent the fly from depositing its eggs, and the onion, 
being nourished by its fibrous roots, ripens and keeps 
better. 

Professor Slingerland, entomologist of the Cornell 
Station, New York, recommends spraying with the fol- 
lowing: Dissolve one pound soap in half gallon water and 
emulsify with one pint of crude carbolic acid. Spray 
freely over the plants as soon as above the ground and 
every few days after. 



138 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



The Curculio, or Plum Weevil, (Conotrachelus Nenu- 
phar, Herbst), is a short, thick, rough beetle, of a dark- 
brown or blackish color, varied with spots of white and 




Fig. 42 — Curculio or Plum Weevil. Conotrachelus nenuphar, Her. 
Riley, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Report 1888. 

yellow; with a long snout hanging down in front like an 
elephant's trunk. It makes a small, crescent-like incision 
upon the side of the plum and cherry, just after they are 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 139 

set, in which it drops an egg. From this is hatched a 
small, white, footless worm, which bores into the fruit, 
causing it to drop prematurely from the tree. The worm 
enters the ground, and in three or four weeks comes out, 
and the successive broods attack the plum, apricot, 
cherry, nectarine, and peach, until the fruit ripens. Their 
incisions have been found in the limbs of the pear tree. 
The beetle, if discovered, feigns death, and can hardly be 
distinguished from the dried flower buds by careless ob- 
servers. Picking or sweeping up the fruit as fast as it 
drops, and boiling it for pigs, before the worm can enter 
the earth has been found beneficial; likewise jarring the 
tree (by striking sharply with a mallet ou the stump of 
a limb removed for the purpose) as soon as the fruit is the 
size of a pea, and collecting the insects on a white sheet 
as they fall, and destroying them. As the insects are 
torpid in the morning, that is the best time for the opera- 
tion, which should be kept up until the fruit begins to 
ripen. Plant all stone fruits in an enclosure by them- 
selves in which pigs and poultry are admitted ; these will 
collect the fruit as fast as it falls, and tread the ground 
firmly together, so that it is not easy for the insects to 
enter it. None of these methods will be fully effectual 
if there are neglected trees near by from which the insect 
may emigrate. The most reliable of them is jarring the 
trees, and destroying the insects daily; the next is giving 
access to a large flock of ducks and chickens, which, de- 
stroying the perfect insect, are a much more efficient 
remedy than the pigs alone. 

The Squash-Vine Borer (Melittia satyriniformis, 
Ilbn.). — This insect feeds on the interior of the stem of 
the squash, and its presence is not detected until it has 
been in the stem some time, and has grown to a well- 
developed larva. The leaves of the plant show the 
damage being done by the insect by wilting, and the 



140 



GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 



entire plant will soon die unless the insects are destroyed. 
The adult insect is a moth which flies during the heat 
of the day, and toward the close of day it lights on the 
leaves in a rather sluggish condition. The eggs are laid 
on all parts of the plant, and they hatch from six to fifteen 
days after being deposited. The caterpillars are small, 
white, with a dark head and a few scattered hairs over 




f 

Fig. 43 — Melittia satyriniformis. a, Male moth, b, Fe- 
male when at rest, c, Eggs shown on bit of squash 
stem; d, Full grown larva in vine, e, Pupa. /, 
Pupa cell. All one-third larger than natural size. 
Div. Ent. Dept. Agri. Cir. 38. 

the body. When full grown they measure about one 
inch in length. 

Plants M tacked. — Squashes, pumpkins, gourds, musk- 
melons, cucumbers. 

Remedies. — Because the caterpillar is found in the 
stem it is very difficult to treat it with spraying methods, 
so we arc compelled to resort to cutting the insect out of 
the stem and to use preventive means. Rotation of crops 
will serve to check the trouble; also planting trap crops 
and burning these when the eggs are deposited on them. 
Fall harrowing and deep spring harrowing have also 
been found beneficial in exposing the pupae or cocoons 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



14 L 



1«» the cold air and the birds or fowls. This followed by 
deep plowing will prevent other cocoons that may escape 
from reaching the surface in the form of the moths. Burn 
all dead vines and squash rubbish after the squashes are 
gathered. During the growing season keep the plants 
vigorous and healthy. (Chittenden.) 

The Squash Bug (A nam tristis, DeG.). — This insect is 
of a' rusty black color above, and yellowish beneath; of a 
foul, disgusting smell; of quick motions. It eats the leaf 
and stem, and at 

length destroys the # 

stem. It lays its 
dark - colored eggs 
in patches upon the 
under surface of 
the leaf, to which 
they adhere strong- 
ly. As s o o n as 
hatched, the young 
enemy in little 
swarms commence 
feeding upon the 
leaf, upon its under 
side, which soon 
withers. They are quite timid, but may be found in the 
cool of the day concealed under the leaves or clods of 
earth, and should be sought for while the vines are young, 
daily, in the morning, and crushed before they become 
numerous. 

The Turnip Flea Beetle (Phyllotreta vittata, Fab.). — 
This is a small, hard-shelled insect, of a smooth, shining, 
brassy, or greenish-black color, about an eighth of an 
inch in length. There are two yellow stripes down the 
wing cases. The hinder legs are formed for leaping. It 
attacks the turnip, and other plants of the same family, 




Fig. 4&—Anasa (ristis nymphs, a, Newly 
hatched. h, Second stage, c, Third 
stage. d, Fourth stage, e, Fifth stage. 
All about twice natural size. Chittenden, 
Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Cir. 39. 



142 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



both in its perfect and larva states. When the plants 
have attained some size the injury to the crop is slight, 
but they generally take the young plants while in the seed 
leaf, and destroy the crop entirely in a few hours, 
whether it be a small bed, or a large field. 

The best remedies are preventive, such as to roll the 
surface smoothly, so that the insects may find no hiding- 
places in the soil, to sow the seed in drills, and in a fine, 

rich soil, and apply super- 
phosphate of lime upon 
the seed in the drills, to 




Fig. 45— Anasa tristis. a, Mature 
female, b, Side view of head. 

c, abdominal segments of male. 

d, same of female, a, Twice 
natural size ; b, c, d, slightly 
more enlarged. Chittenden, 
Div. Ent. TJ. S. Dept. Agri. 
Cir. 39. 




Fig. 46 — Phyllotreta vittala. a, 
Larva, b, Adult. Both great- 
ly enlarged. Riley, Div. Ent. 
TJ. S. Dept. Agri. Report, 1884. 



apply plenty of seed, and thin out the plants when in 
the rough leaf. Anything that will accelerate growth 
will soon place the crop out of danger from these little 
insects. Some sow radish seed with turnips, as the flea 
prefers the young radish leaf. If they once attack the 
plants, dusting them with lime ashes and soot is some- 
times useful, but when in great numbers, it is scarcely 
possible to save the young crop. Kerosene emulsion 
should be spraj^ed around the roots and stems to destroy 
eggs and larvae. 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



143 



The Oyster-Shell Bark Louse (Mytilaspis Pomonmi. 
Bouche). — This is probably the commonest and most. 
widespread, and consequently the best known, of any of 
the orchard scales. It is found all over the world. It is 
found in the United States practically wherever apples 

,fi 




Fig. 47 — Mytilaspis pomorum. a, Female scale from be- 
low, showing eggs, b, Same from above, greatly en- 
larged, r, Female scales, d, Male scale, enlarged. 
e, Male scale on twig, natural size. Howard, Div. 
Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. 

and pears are grown. If, during the winter, one of the 
female scales be lifted, it will be found to contain the 
shriveled body of the dead female, under the anterior or 
more pointed portion, while behind this the yellowish- 
white eggs are thickly massed together back to the ex- 
tremity of the scale. Under each scale the eggs number 
from forty-two to eighty-six. The young hatch from thesp 



144 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



eggs in spring, wander out upon the twigs, and settle at 
once. With this species the young twigs are generally 
the only parts of the tree seriously affected. Older twigs, 
however, are also attacked, and many specimens of the 
insect may be found upon the trunk. There is generally 
only one brood in most sections of the country, although 

in the far South 
there may be two 
broods occurring in 
each year. After in- 
serting its beak and 
settling, the female 
molts twice, and be- 
gins the formation 
of the scale, which is 
s e c r e t e d mainly 
from the hinder por- 
tions of the body 
and extends back- 
ward, the two cast 
skins remaining in 
an overlapping posi- 
tion on the anterior 
portion of the scale. 
The male scale is 
much smaller than 
the female scale, as 
indicated in the figure, and is otherwise distinguished 
by a few structural peculiarities. In the first place, there 
is but one cast skin at its anterior extremity, and in the 
next place, the hinder portion of the scale is hinged in 
such a way that it lifts up like a flap, permitting the 
escape of the adult male. (Howard.) 

Plants Attacked. — Apple, pear, plum, quince, raspberry, 
currant, maple, ash, elm and other forest trees. 




Fig. 48 — Aspidiotus perniciosus. c, Adult 
female removed from scale, showing em- 
bryonic young, greatly enlarged, d, Anal 
plate, still more enlarged. Howard. Div. 
Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC 



145 



Besides the San Jose scale and the oyster-shell bark 
louse there are other scales which are destructive to fruit 
and other trees in the South. Among the number may be 
mentioned the scurfy bark louse (Chionaspis furfurus, 
Fitch); the greedy scale (Aspidiotus camelliae, Sign.); the 
English walnut scale (Aspidiotus juglans-regiae, Coins.); 
the new peach scale 
(Diaspis la-ti'atus, Mor- 
gan & Cock.). 

Remedies. — Two of 
our common orchard 
scales, viz., the scurfy 
bark louse and the 
oyster-shell bark louse, 
hibernate in the egg 
state, and their hatch- 
ing is comparatively 
uniform. The approxi- 
mate date throughout 
the middle belt of the 
country is from the 
middle to the end of 
May. Moreover, the 
larvae are compara- 
tively slow to settle, 
and the scale at first is not very dense. Therefore, 
one, or, at the most, two applications of kerosene-soap 
emulsion, diluted with ten parts of water, made about the 
first of June, will hold these two species well in check. 
(Howard.) 

San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comst.). — This 
is one of the most destructive insects which attack the 
apple. It is becoming very widely spread throughout the 
United States, and when it finds lodgement in an orchard 
heroic measures are required to eradicate the pest. Great 
10 




Fig. 49 — San Jose Scale, a, Young larva, 
greatly enlarged. 6, Antenna of same, 
still more enlarged. Howard, Div. 
Ent. Cir. 3, U. S. Dept. Agri. 



140 



GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 



care should be exercised when purchasing trees to buy 
only from those nurserymen who are known to be relia- 
ble, and who are provided with satisfactory bills of health 
signed by well-known entomologists. 

Messrs. Howard and Marlett, of the Division of Ento- 
mology of the United States Department of Agriculture, 
have made extensive experiments with the various 
methods recommended for the destruction of this insect, 
and their studios concerning the life history of the scale 




Fig. 50 — San Jose Scale. Male adult, greatly enlarged. 
Howard, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Cir. 3. 

have been so full and complete the summary made by 
them is given. The illustrations are also taken from the 
publications of these entomologists: 

" The scale is not readily detected by the casual ob- 
server, and consequently often remains unnoticed until 
the death of the tree calls attention to it. Unfortunately, 
it multiplies rapidly. Each adult female continues to 
give birth to living young for a long period (six weeks), 
and there are several (probably four) generations each 
year. It infests the stems, twigs, leaves, fruit of nearly 
all deciduous trees, and is extremely difficult to kill. The 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



14' 



young insects arc almost microscopic in size, being one- 
hundredth of an inch in length, consequently not seen 
except by the practiced eye. The mature insects, as 
already indicated, are very small and without some ex- 
perience will be readily overlooked, even by good ob- 
servers. Also, persons uninformed might easily mistake 
other insects for this species. The most common scale 
upon orchard trees is the 
'scurfy bark louse' (Chio- 
naspis furfurus), but this 
differs from the San Jose 
scale in some important 
particula rs. First, the 
scurfy scale is elongate, 
never circular in outline; 
lies tlat upon the bark, and 
is papery white in color; 
second, this scale passes 
the winter in the egg state 
and is single brooded, 
while, on the contrary, the 

San Jose Scab 1 passes the 

1 Fjg. 51 — San Jose Scale. Apple 

Winter in all Stages, from branch, with scale in situ, natural 
the minute egg, just cover- size. Enlarged scales above at left. 

ed with the 'scale, up to n ° wa ^ d ' Div - Ellt - u - s - Dept ' 
mature individuals. 

Plant* Injured.— Almond, apricot, acacia, alder, cherry, 
currant, gooseberry, hawthorn, linden, osage orange, 
pear, peach, plum, persimmon, pecan, quince, raspberry, 
rose, spirea, weeping willow. 

Remedies. — "(1.) In all cases of recent or slight attack 
the affected stock should be promptly uprooted and 
burned. No measure is so sure as this, and the danger of 
spread is so great that this course seems fully warranted. 




♦Circular No. 42, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agri. 



148 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



"(2.) In cases of long standing and wide extent the 
affected stock should be cut back severely and treated 
with winter soap wash; stock badly incrusted with scale 
should be cut out at once and burned. The lessening 
of the vitality, together with the poisoning of the sap- 
wood already affect- 
ed by the scale in 
such cases, will usu- 
ally prevent the 
plant from ever 
again becoming 
healthy, and gene- 
rally it is beyond 
help. We wish par- 
ticularly to impress 
upon the minds of 
fruit growers that as 
soon as this insect is 
found to occur in an 
orchard the most 
strenuous measures 
i must be taken to 
1 stamp it out. No 
half-way steps will 
suffice. The individ- 

„ rn „ T , ,, 7 „ -, ual must remember 

Fig. 52— San Jose Scale, a, Pear, mod- 
erately infested, natural size. 6, Female that not Only are his 
scale, enlarged. Howard, Div. Ent. U. S. own interests vitally 
Dept. Agri. Cir. 3. at stakej but those of 

the entire community in which he resides. He may think 
that he cannot bear the loss, but the loss in consequence of 
the slightest neglect will be much greater. The fact, too, 
that there is a community of interests among fruit grow- 
ers in this matter must not be lost sight of. Fruit growers 
.ni ust be mutually helpful in an emergency like this. 




INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



149 



"(3.) As precautionary measures to prevent the intro- 
duction of the scale into new districts, the following con- 
siderations are important: No orchardist should admit a 
single young' fruit tree or a single cutting from a distance 
into liis orchard without first carefully examining it and 




Fig. 53—Protoparce Carolina, a, Aduit moth. 6, Full grown larva, c, Pupa, 
natural size. Howard, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Year Book, 1898. 

satisfying himself conclusively that it does not carry a 
single specimen of the San Jose scale; he should insist, 
also, on a guaranty from the nurseryman of such free- 
dom. In addition, no fruit should be brought upon the 
premises without previous careful inspection. If this 
course is adopted by every one interested, without excep- 
tion, the rale of spread of the species may be limited to 



150 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




the comparatively slight natural extension by crawling, 
by winds, and by the aid of other insects and birds."* 

Tobacco Worm, ok Tomato Worm, or Horn Worm 
(Protoparse Carolina, Linn., and P. celeus, Ilubn.). — " There 
are two species of large sphinx moths whose larvae, or 
caterpillars, eat the leaves of tobacco, tomato and allied 
plants, including, occasionally, the Irish potato. These 
caterpillars, from the fact that each boars upon one of 
the posterior segments of the body a rather stout, curved 

horn, have become 
popularly known as 
horn worms. To- 
bacco growers do 
not distinguish be- 
tween the two dif- 
ferent kinds of horn 
worms, and for prac- 
Fig. 54— Bruchus pisorum. a, Adult beetle, tical purposes it is 
b, Larva, r, Pupa. All greatly enlarged, not [u the least 
Chittenden, Div Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Year necegsar tftat th 
Book, 1898. ' J 

should distinguish 

them. The curious brown pupa into which the cater- 
pillar transforms, which is found under the surface 
of the ground, and which is at once recognized by the 
handle-shaped process which issues from the top of the 
head, is the form from which issues the adult moths. 
Both of the insects occur more or less abundantly in the 
tobacco fields over the entire tobacco-growing regions of 
the United States. In certain localities one species will 
be much more abundant than the other, and in other 
localities the numbers will be more evenly divided. In 
general, it may be said that celeus is the more northern 
species, while further South enrol in a is apt to be much 
the more common." (Howard.) 



*CircularNo. 42, Div. Ent. U. S.Dept. Agri. 



[NSECTS, FUNGI, PLAST DISEASES, ETC. 



151 



Plants Attacked. — Tobacco, tomato, Irish potato, egg- 
plant. 

Remedies. — Hand-picking is sure, and, because of the 
large size of the worms, readily and easily accomplished. 
Jamestown (Jimson) weeds are sometimes cultivated, the 
flowers of which the moths are fond of visiting for the 
nectar they contain. If these flowers are poisoned with 
a small quantity of a solution made of cobalt, one ounce; 
molasses, one pint; water, one pint, the moths will be 




3 a, c 

Fig. 55 — B melius obtectus. a, Beetle, b, Larva, c, Papa. All 

greatly enlarged. Chittenden, Div. Eat. U. S. Dept. 

Agri. Year Book, 1898. 

destroyed when they suck the flowers for the nectar. This 
method has been practiced with success in Florida. 

Weevils, Pea and Bean (Bruchus pisorum, Linn.; /?. 
obtectus, S. ; II. quadrimaculatus, Fab.). — These weevils are 
well known by all gardeners, and the damage committed 
by them is very great. The adult insect deposits its eggs 
on the inside of the green pod by making a slit on the 
suture through which the eggs are placed. The grubs 
(liter the seed and feed on the starch stored up by the 
plant for the germ. 

Remedies. — Seed, which are attacked by the weevils 
should be treated with the fumes of carbon bisulphide. 



152 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




A small quantity of the seeds are placed in a tight box 
and a portion of the carbon bisulphide is poured over 
them; another layer of seeds and fresh carbon bisulphide, 
and this operation is repeated until the box is filled. A 
close cover is put on and the box allowed to stand for a 
day or two, when the fumes of the poison will kill all 
of the insects in the seeds. In the use of this chemical 
great care must be taken because of its inflammable quali- 
ties. See that )io 
smoJciiig is permitted 
within the room 
where the work is 
being conducted, or 
a disastrous explo- 
sion will result. 

Heterodera radi- 
cicola ( G r e e f f ). 
Mull; Nematode 
root-galls. These 
are enlargements 
on the roots of cer- 
tain plants attacked by a microscopical worm, which 
causes the swelling by eating the roots. Professor Atkin- 
son, in his study of this worm in Bulletin 9 of the Alabama 
Experiment Station, gives the following description of 
the disease: " The surface of the gall is at first smooth, 
more or less undulate, or papillate, but becomes later 
roughened, scurfy, or cracked, and finally decay of the 
tissues sets in." 1 When the roots begin to die they send 
out uew roots in the efforts of the plant to recover from 
the effects of the disease. These roots in turn are at- 
tacked and deformed." 

Inasmuch as the worm is found in the tissues of the 
roots and the openings they make are so minute it is 
impossible to reach them with the ordinary methods of 



Fig. 56 — Bruchus quadrimaculatits. a, Beetle. 
b, Larva, c, Pupa. All enlarged. Chitten- 
den, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Year Book, 
1898. 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



153 



applications of vermicides, it is therefore recommended 
to sterilize the soil by starvation of the worm — that is, 
planting only those plants which are known to be free 
from the attacks — and by clean 
cultivation. 

PLANT DISEASES. 

These diseases are referred to 
what are called fungi, which be- 
long to the Cryptogamic branch 
of the vegetable kingdom. A 
fungus is a plant that is devoid of 
the coloring matter or chloro- 
phyll so necessary in the higher 
plants for a proper assimilation 
of the crude food. This coloring 
matter being absent in the body 
of the fungus, it becomes neces- 
sary for it to seek for its food in 
the flowering plants, where it is 
in a condition to be immediately 
assimilated. The damage, there- 
fore, to the plant is caused by the 
hyphae, or thread-like forms of 
the fungus penetrating the tis- 
sues and drawing the sap and 
nutritive fluids, and thus eventu- 
ally starving the plant to death. 
These hyphae are either separate 
or in bundles; and the entire 
mass of vegetative portion is 
called mycelium. 

The reproduction of the fungus is by means of spores 
which are developed on the mycelium. These spores 
under the proper conditions of heat and moisture throw 




Fig. 57 — Nematode on Carrot. 
California Bulletin. 



154 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

out fine filaments and rapidly grow into a mature fungus. 
There are two kinds of these spores, or, rather, two con- 
ditions. One stage belongs to the summer period, and is 
to be found on the surface of the host, while the other 
belongs to the Avinter, and is deeply seated in the tissues 
of the plant upon which the fungus was developed. The 
fruit and leaves are common places for the latter stage 
of the fungus. 

From the fact that the fungus soon finds its way into 
the tissues of the host plant it will be readily understood 
that the application of remedies to the surface will have 
but little, if any, effect in destroying the disease. We 
must, therefore, greatly rely upon preventive rather than 
curative methods. 

There are many species of fungi attacking the culti- 
vated plants, and the vigorous investigations of the 
Experiment Station workers all over the United States 
are bringing to light new forms each year, but the limited 
character of this book will permit the mention of only a 
few of the most destructive and troublesome species. 

Bacillus amylovorus (Burrill). Fire blight, frozen sap 
blight, pear blight. This serious destruction of the pear 
tree is the result of the attack of a minute bacterium 
which causes the fermentation of the sap and the leaves 
to turn a dark brown, and even the wood is made to crack 
under the freezing and thawing of tissues in their un- 
healthy condition. By this cracking of the wood the 
bacteria are often given access to the older portions 
of the tree. The first attack made by the bacteria is 
through the nectaries and stigmas of the flowers, in the 
soft tissues of the twigs and leaves where a wound has 
been made. When a diseased tree is permitted to stand 
the germs are transmitted by insects to the healthy trees, 
as they fly from one flower to another seeking for the 
nectar. When placed in this favorable condition the 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLAXT DISEASES, ETC. 155 

bacteria soon begin to multiply with great activity, and 
but a short time will elapse before the twig shows a 
sickly indication. 

The only remedy now known is to cut away the dis- 
eased portions into the healthy part and carefully burn 
the wood. This may not in all cases prevent the trouble 
appearing again, but nothing better is now known. 

Cladosporium fulvitm (Cke.), Cladosporium carpophilum 
(Thuni.) Leaf blight of the tomato and brown spot of the 
poach, plum and cherry. The first attacks the loaf of the 
tomato by turning it yellow in spots and eventually 
covering the entire foliage. (A badly diseased plant is 
unable to grow leaves and have sufficient vitality to de- 
velop fruit also.) The C. carpophilum shows on the fruit of 
the peach, plum and cherry in brown, velvety spots, in- 
creasing in size until they run together in the shape of 
large patches. 

The remedy recommended is spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture every week or so to protect the new leaves and 
fruit. See the table at the end of this chapter. 

Caeoma nitons (Schw.). Red" rust of the raspberry and 
blackberry. This disease lives in the tissues of the plants 
and breaks through to the surface, where it matures its 
orange-colored spores, on the under sides of the leaves. 
The fungus, however, infests the entire plant, and it is 
supposed that it finds its way into the tissues through 
the roots. The spores live through the winter in the 
leaves which fall to the ground. The mycelium is peren- 
nial and remains in the stem during the winter. 

The only sure remedy is to dig up all diseased canes 
and burn them. Treat in the same way all wild plants 
found in the neighborhood containing the rust. Do not 
plant any species of the raspberry and blackberry in the 
same locality for three or four years. If but few of the 
plants are infected spray the healthy ones with copper 



156 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



sulphate solution or Bordeaux mixture. The anthracnose 

is another disease which is destructive to the raspberry. 

Ceratocystis fimbriata (Ell. & Hals.). Sweet potato black 

rot. The beginning of the disease is shown by the appear- 




Fig. 58— Anthracnose of Raspberry. Gloeosporium 
venetum. Div. Veg Phys and Path. 



ance of dark olive-brown, or green patches, on the young 
sprouts or upon the potato, entering the tissues. The 
fungus grows rapidly and soon causes death to the sprout 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, lit . 



157 



by girdling, and, in the case of the potato, covering the 
surface with a dark-green rot. Like other diseases of the 
fungus kind, the trouble is the result of the mycelium 
entering the tissues and feeding on the starch grains and 
cellular tissues. 

Only healthy potatoes must be planted for the slips or 
sprouts, and no sickly slips must be transplanted; do not 
use hog manures in quantities, as this seems to encourage 
the development of the fungus; clear the field <>f all 
debris and small potatoes after digging; and in case of 




< 

Fig. 59— Soft-rot of Sweet Potato. Rhizopus nigricans (Ehr.). Kedrawn 

after Halstiad. 

infested fields, rotate the crop, planting other than root 
crops. 

Rhizopus nigricans (Ehr.). Soft rot of the sweet potato. 
Dr. Byron D. Halsted gives the following account of this 
disease: This form of decay, while it may be met with in 
the field at digging time, is usually found most destruc- 
tive in the storeroom, where it causes the attacked roots 
to quickly become soft and worthless. In the engraving- 
is shown a root in which the mould has penetrated for 
nearly the whole length of the potato. As a rule, the 
mould effects an entrance through the upper end of the 
potato, where the latter was separated from the main 
root, because the rind of the root, on account of its tough- 
ness, in a measure prevents the entrance of the fungus. 



158 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 

Should there be a break at any other ijoint, this pro- 
vides a suitable point for the' attack of the disease. 
The roots are more or less cut or bruised in harvesting, 
and these places favor the entrance of the fungus. As 
the mould advances within the tissue of the plant it 
exudes a substance which is very active in causing the 
starch in the potato to dissolve, as also the walls of the 
cells to become partially decomposed. In this way the 
juice from the decaying sweet potato is able to induce 
a similar decay in healthy roots. 

It is quite safe to assume that the mould makes its 
entrance into the potato from the surrounding medium, 
and usually after the roots have been harvested. It does 
not, as far as known, begin by infecting the leaves of the 
growing plant, and then pass down the stem, as is true 
with the soft rot of the Irish potato. The fact that it 
finds broken, bruised or cut spots in the roots favor- 
able places for entrance suggests the importance of 
being careful in harvesting and subsequent handling, 
that the least possible harm shall come to the skin of 
the roots. It is also true that the soft rot is greatly 
favored by a moist atmosphere, especialty shortly after 
digging, at the time the roots are undergoing the 
process known as fck sweating." At this critical period 
it is very necessary that the potatoes be stored in a 
well-ventilated room, where a constant temperature 
of not far from seventy degrees, or about that of a living 
room, may be sustained. All soft potatoes should be 
sorted from the healthy ones and destroyed. 

Cercospora Apii (Fries.). Celery-leaf blight. The evi- 
dence of the fungus is the appearance of pale yellow- 
green spots on both sides of the leaves, about one-fourth 
of an inch in diameter. These will soon change to a 
brown color with a lighter colored center, and, if per- 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



159 



mitted to have its way, the disease will cause the leaf 
to dry up and became browned over its entire surface. 

Remove all infected leaves and watch the plants for 
the disease, so that all parts attacked may be destroyed. 




Fig. 60— Leaf Curl. Exooscus deformans. Berk, 
on Plum leaves (after Atkinson). Cornell Bulle- 
tin 73. 



There is no sure remedy in the shape of spraying after 
the mycelium has found its way into the tissues. 

Damping Off (generally attributed to the fungus 



160 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 

Artotrogus debaryanus, Hesse). The disease occurs in the 
hot-bed or greenhouse, and rots off the young seedlings 
near the surface of the ground. The tissues are weak- 
ened by the attack of the fungus, and the plant falls to 
the ground. A number of fungi are also responsible for 
this trouble, and great encouragement is given to them 
in making the attack by the damp condition of the soil, 
the high temperature and the humid atmosphere. 

In the case of seed beds and greenhouses the remedy 
is to change the soil and ventilate, and transplant only 
the healthy plants. Do not water to excess. 

Exoascus deformans (Brek.), Fuckel, Peach leaf curl ; 
Exoascus pruni, Fuckel, Plum pockets. The peach leaf 
curl is caused by the attack of a fungus which makes the 
leaves drop early in the summer, and if the disease is 
very severe the entire foliage may fall, followed by the 
fruit. The fungus seems to be developed just after a cold, 
wet period before the leaves put forth. The curling of the 
leaf is due to the growth of the mycelium in the tissues, 
and the spores give the surface a mealy cast. The fungus 
remains in the fallen leaves and branches through the win- 
ter, ready to renew the attack at the opening of the spring. 

The remedy recommended by some experimenters is 
to prune back the twigs and spray with Bordeaux mix- 
ture before the buds appear, repeating the operation 
after the trees are out of bloom and again at the end of 
two weeks. In the use of the Bordeaux mixture care 
must be taken to have an excess of lime in the mixture, 
so as to prevent injury to the leaves. 

The plum pockets are the diseased fruits on the plum 
tree. The mycelium pass the winter in the fruit-bearing 
branches, and as soon as the ovaries appear in the spring 
the fungus enters them and stimulates them so that the 
plum becomes enlarged and the tissues dry up and as- 
sume a spongy cast. 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



161 



The diseased fruits and branches should be burned, 
and in the spring the trees must be sprayed with solu- 
tion of copper sulphate, which will help greatly in check- 
ing the fungus, and an occasional application of Bordeaux 
mixture will still further overcome the trouble. 







*,w 






taitiJl - 


i 






sk 






w 

& 




^A^ ' 


,,/° 


\¥ \«w 


*J* « 




k. ft* 


^Pgw^r^pt 




9 




T| 


t«Pl 


■ 







Fig til — Apple Scab Fusicladium dendriticum. 

Entomosporium maculatum (Lev.). Leaf blight and crack- 
ing of the pear; also found on the quince. This fungus 
first makes its appearance on the leaves as small, brown 
spots which soon enlarge to considerable patches. Later 
in the season black spots are seen in the center of the 
brown patches, which are the spores. The disease begins 
early in the spring, and the entire foliage will become 
11 



162 GARDEIs'IAG FOR THE SOUTH. 

infested, and the tree will become defoliated. In many 
instances the wood and the fruit also become affected 
with the fungus. In the case of the fruit the surface 
shows carmine red spots, which turn dark afterwards, 
and the skin becomes roughened and then cracks, making 
an unsightly fruit for market. 

This disease can be kept in check by the use of Bor- 
deaux mixture at intervals of two weeks until about the 
1st of August. The first application should be made 
before the buds appear and three others at intervals of 
ten days. Burn all leaves which fall from the tree that is 
affected with the disease. 

Fusicladium dendriticum (Fckl.). Apple scab, leaf blight, 
or leaf mildew. There are apparently two forms of this 
fungus, one attacking the leaves and the other the fruit; 
but, in fact, it is the same disease. For some years prior 
to 1873 it was supposed by observers to be two distinct 
fungi, but Professor M. C. Cooke has shown that they are 
identical. The appearance on the leaves is in the form of 
small olive-green spots, which as they increase in size as- 
sume a velvety appearance with the borders more or less 
irregular. The fruit shows a similar condition of the at- 
tack. There is generally a light colored ring around the 
borders of the spot. It has been determined that dry, hot 
summers are unfavorable to the development of the fun- 
gus, while wet springs and summers, and a cool condition 
of the atmosphere, will cause the fungi to grow with con- 
siderable vigor. 

This fungus does not penetrate far into the tissues, and 
in its first stages it is exposed on the surface of the leaves 
and fruit, so that spraying will kill the spores, but the 
difficulty consists in the fact that the solutions which 
are strong enough to accomplish this end will also de- 
stroy the foliage of the tree. We must, therefore, com- 
mence spraying in early spring before the buds begin to 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



loa 



expand, using a solution of sulphate of copper. Wheu the 
blossoms have falleu repeat the spraying with the Bor- 
deaux mixture, and make two or three applications if the 
season is wet. 

Laestddia bidwelli (Ell.), Via. and Rav. Black rot of the 
grape. This disease 
a t t a c k s both the 
fruit and the leaves, 
the former most se- 
verely. When about 
full grown there ap- 
pear on the grapes 
spots of a brown or 
purple color, which 
in a few days extend 
over the entire sur- 
face, with the center 
somewhat d a r k e r. 
Black pimples over 
the diseased part are 
characteristic fea- 
tures of the fungus. 
T h e fruit so o n 
shrinks up and re- 
mains on the vine for 
a period as late as 
winter. On the leaves 
the spots are reddish 
brown dispersed be- 
tween the veins. The disease is detected here some days 
before the attack is made on the fruit. 

Since the fungus makes its appearance so late in the 
season after the fruit is w T ell advanced, it becomes rather 
a difficult problem to destroy the disease if the spraying- 
is postponed, without staining the grapes. It is, there- 




Fig. 62 



—Laestadia bidweUiCEU ). Via&Rav. 
Div. Botany, U. S. Dept. Agri. 



L64 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



fore, important that early applications of Bordeaux 
mixture be made, and as thoroughly as possible — begin- 
ning before the blossoms open, and repeating the spray- 
ing three or four times, with a week or ten da} r s inter- 
vening between each application, care being taken not to 
extend the spraying until the fruit is stained. 

Monilia fructigena (Pers.). The rot of peach, plum, 
quince, and cherry. *" The fungus makes its appearance 




Fig. 63— Monilia fructigena. Geneva, N. Y., Bulletin 86. 

on the flowers soon after or about the time the petals 
fall. At first a slight discoloration appears at a given 
point; this rapidly increases in size until at length the 
entire flower assumes a brownish hue. 

"After killing the flower the fungus frequently attacks 
the pedicels, where it produces similar discolorations to 
those described above. The dead flowers usually remain 
on the tree for three or four w T eeks, then if the weather is 
wet they begin falling, and as they consist at this time 
of a soft mass of rotten tissue they stick to any part of 

*B. T. Galloway, Sec. Veg. Path. Report, Department Agriculture, 1888. 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 165 

the tree with which they come in contact; many fall upon 
the leaves and young fruit and become so firmly attached 
that no ordinary rain or wind will remove them. Careful 
experiments have shown that the rotting flowers are 
highly infectious, and that wherever they touch the 
leaves or fruit decay sets in. 

" On the leaves the presence of the fungus is first made 
manifest by a slight discoloration of the tissue around 
the point of infection; this gradually enlarges, and at the 
same time the normal healthy green color changes to a 
reddish-brown. . . During wet w T eather the spots on 
the upper surface of the leaf are frequently studded with 
little tufts of fungus; these have a mealy or pulverulent 
appearance, and are easily washed oft' by the rains or 
removed by the wind. 

"As in the case of the leaves, the fruit is often infected 
by means of the diseased flowers. At first there appears 
a brownish circular spot on one side of the cherry; this 
rapidly enlarges and soon the entire fruit becomes brown, 
shrunken, and soft. Ultimately the fruit stalk is attacked 
and finally the whole either falls to the ground and dries 
up, or remains hanging on the tree throughout the sum- 
mer, or until the following spring. The fruit is often 
covered with tufts of the fungus similar to those occur- 
ring upon the leaves, and while in this condition they 
are highly infectious, causing all the fruit with which 
they come in contact to rot." 

The remedy recommended is spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture just before the blossoms open, again just after 
the blossoms fall, and about ten days after with another 
spraying of the Bordeaux mixture. Some doubt the 
entire efficiency of spraying, and its advisability is an 
open question. Precaution must be exercised in its use, 
particularly with the peach, which is so liable to iuuiry 
from the chemicals. 



166 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



Alternaria Solani (E. and M.) Sor. Early or leaf blight 
of the potato. This disease is readily recognized by the 




Fig. t>4 — Oedema. Leaf Curl of Tomato (Atkinson). Cornell Experiment 

Station Bulletin. 

peculiar folding of the edges of the leaves, resulting from 
the shrinking of the tissue after the attack of the fungus 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 167 

has destroyed the vitality of the cells. The attack begins 
with a small spot, which gradually enlarges until most of 
the leaf surface is involved, and, unless the disease is 
checked, the entire plant is so injured its power to pro- 
duce tubers is destroyed. 

The remedy for this disease is Bordeaux mixture 
sprayed on the plants just after they are six inches high, 
and continued at intervals of two weeks until June 1st. 

Oedema. Leaf curl of the tomato. The disease is mani- 
fested by the rolling up of the leaves exposing the under 
surfaces. The veins are very much swollen, and the 
leaves become more or less brittle. The illustration of 
this disease is copied from Bulletin 53 of the Cornell 
Station by Professor G. F. Atkinson. The attack is made 
on the older leaves first, and the plant dies from the base 
upwards. 

Experience has shown that the disease is caused fre- 
quently by an excess of water in the soil, or by a too 
liberal use of ammoniacal fertilizers, so that irrigation 
will help to retard the disease and judicious application 
of fertilizers will prevent too vigorous growth of soft 
tissue, which seems to be subject to the disease. 

Oospora scabies. Potato scab. A delicate white mold 
first makes its appearance on the surface of the potato 
(Irish), and the scab is developed by the tissues of the 
tuber, at the point of attack, forming a layer of cork as 
a protection against the fungus parasite. As the potato 
grows this diseased place begins to crack and becomes 
roughened. Very soon the entire hill of tubers becomes 
infected. 

The remedy is preventive rather than curative. A 
large per cent, of organic matter in the soil seems to en- 
courage the development of the disease, and where lime 
and stable manure are used in large quantities there is 
danger of having this parasite on the crop. Scabby 



168 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

potatoes must not be planted, because this will infect 
the soil and give trouble. Stable manure secured from 
animals fed on potatoes and beets is liable to produce 
the disease. Rotation must be practiced and clean cul- 
ture must be the rule. 

Peach yellows : Peach rosette. These two diseases are not 
yet well understood. The cause is unknown, but the effects 
have been carefully examined by pathologists, and the 
diseases have been pronounced virulently contagious. 
The yellows have not been located positively farther 




Fig. 65— Oosj ora scabies. Cornell Experiment Station, Bulletin 113. 

south than Virginia, but there is constant danger of its 
introduction at any time by means of the diseased stock 
brought from the infected districts. Peach yellows 
manifests its presence by the premature ripening of the 
fruit, with bright red blotches over the skin and into the 
flesh, penetrating almost to the center of the peach, pro- 
ducing an unnatural coloring. There is also a premature 
unfolding of the leaf buds into pale, sickly growths, 
giving the tree an unhealthy look. The fruit has a bitter, 
unpleasant taste. The tree gradually succumbs to the 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 169 

attack, and in the course of two or three years will die 
entirely. 

The rosette is somewhat similar to yellows in its 
methods of attack, but it is more decided in its appear- 
ance. " It may first attack part of a tree and then the 
remainder, the same as yellows, but it is more likely to 
appear at once in the whole tree, and generally in early 
spring. In trees attacked in this manner all of the leaf 
buds grow into compact tufts or rosettes. These rosettes, 
although seldom more than two or three inches long, 
usuall}' contain several hundred small leaves. A tree 
thus attacked always dies the following autumn or win- 
ter. The prevailing color of the foliage is yellowish green 
or olivaceous." (Erwin F. Smith in Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 17.) 

The only sure remedy is to dig up the infected trees 
and carefully burn them, otherwise the disease will soon 
spread throughout the entire orchard. 

Plowrightia morbosa (Sacc). The black knot of the plum. 
This is an excrescence growing upon the bark and young 
wood. The bark swells and bursts, and finally assumes 
the appearance of a large, irregular lump, with a hard, 
ciacked, uneven surface. The flow of sap is obstructed 
by this tumor, and the poison is gradually disseminated 
over the whole tree. The Morello cherry is also subject 
to the attacks of this disease. It made its appearance in 
Athens, Georgia, for the first time in the year 1853 on a 
tree from the North. The black, rough condition of the 
knot is its last stage. When the tree is first infected the 
trouble is not so clear to the ordinary observer, and the 
disease obtains a strong foothold before one is aware of 
its presence. The development is accomplished in the 
following manner. If an examination is made of the 
surface of one of the black knots small pimples will be 
detected in which the spores, or so-called seeds, are 



170 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

located. These spores are carried by the wind to other 
trees, and, finding lodgement, soon germinate and send 
mycelii into the tissues of the plum, where growth is 




Fig. 6() — Plowrightia morbosa (Sacc), Mass. (State) 
Exp. Station, Report 1892. J. E. Humphray. 

continued until spring, when the presence of the disease 
is manifested. 

The only remedy is to cut off every branch or twig that 
shows a tumor, and burn it at once; and be sure to cut 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 171 

several inches below the point of attack, so that all 
nivcelii will be taken out, otherwise the trouble will 
make its appearance again. 

Phyfophthora infestans (DeBary). Potato rot; late blight, 
or downy mildew. The leaves turn a brown color in large, 
irregular spots, the unattacked portions of the leaves 
remaining green. The tubers are also destroyed by this 
disease, and become a dark color, shrivelling up and, 
where the attack is rapid, giving out considerable moist- 
ure in the rotten portions. 

The remedy is to spray the vines several times with the 
Bordeaux mixture, beginning when the plants are only 
a few inches above the surface of the ground, and repeat- 
ing at intervals of two weeks. 

Blight of the Orange.* Wilt or leaf curl. This is a 
common disease in Florida, and it is considered to be 
incurable. It attacks most of the citrus fruits; but it 
does not generally make its appearance until the tree is 
old enough to bear fruit. It is a peculiar disease found 
only in Florida, and it is widely distributed over the 
State. The blight comes rather suddenly, and its pres- 
ence is at first manifested by the wilting of the leaves, 
followed by their falling, until the branches are denuded 
of foliage. 

Inasmuch as there is no remedy for this disease, the 
tree affected must be cut out at once and destroyed, be- 
cause the healthy trees in the grove will soon become 
infected, and the entire orchard will die. It is useless to 
treat blighted trees, and money and time will be wasted 
by adopting any remedy recommended; the only sure 
mot hod is the heroic one of cutting out and burning all 
trees affected. 



♦Bulletin 8, Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. U. S. Dept. Agri. 



172 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Die Back (Exanthema).* This disease is also known 
only in Florida, and is widely distributed over the State. 
As the name implies, the disease causes the vigorous 
new growth to die back in early spring, and the yield of 
fruit is consequently reduced. 

" The order in which the symptoms appear and their 
severity vary greatty, but are generally as follows: The 
first sign of the disease is the unusually dark-green color 
of the foliage, rank growth and large, thick-skinned fruit. 
These symptoms are soon followed by the staining and 
dying back of a few twigs, and by brown stains formed on 
some of the fruits. The fruits developed are prone to 
split and drop prematurely. In the first stage of the 
disease either the stained fruit, or the stained, dying twigs 
must be present to determine with certainty the presence 
of the malady. Trees affected with the disease may grow 
for years and show only one of these character symptoms; 
in other cases all symptoms may be present, but, to a very 
slight extent, so that careful search must be made to find 
them. As the disease progresses the brown staining of the 
fruit and twigs become very abundant, and the dying back 
of the twigs occur all over the tree; eruptions form on the 
young and old twigs; nodal swellings, due to the gum 
pockets, become very abundant, and the tree assumes 
the dense foliage and regular outline described above. 
In this stage of the disease many fruits set, but they 
usually turn yellow, become stained, split and fall before 
maturity, only a few, if any, reaching full size. Soon 
the gum eruptions extend to the old limbs and these die 
back. The rank growth becomes limited to the center 
of the tree; here branches grow luxuriantly for a time, 
only to become stained and die back later." 

Treatment. — Reducing the amount of highly nitro- 



*Bulletin 8, Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Dept. Agri. 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ET< . L73 

genous organic fertilizers, and allowing' the land to grew 
up in weeds, will sometimes remedy the evil. In renew- 
ing the fertilizing materials use potash and phosphoric 
acid, and, as the tree begins to recover, add a little nitrate 
of soda or sulphate of ammonia until the tree is brought 
to its normal condition again. Low, wet soils will also 
produce this disease, and in that case, thorough drainage 
must be resorted to. 

Scab of the Lemon (Verrucosis).* The leaves affected 
with this disease exhibit small, wart-like excrescences 
of various sizes; in some cases running together and 
covering a large portion of the leaf or fruit. At first these 
warts look like small semi-transparent pimples of a 
slightly lighter shade of green than the surrounding sur- 
face. In a few days these warts assume a more prominent 
form, and present a watery cast. Then a fungus makes 
its appearance, which is at first gray, then dusky, and 
at last black. Finally the tissue covering the tips of the 
waits is cut off from the healthy tissue below by the for- 
mation of cork, and ultimately this cork formation be- 
comes so abundant as to give a dingy white color to the 
old warts. 

Treatment. — Proper application of ammoniacal solu- 
tion of copper carbonate will be found efficient. Remove 
all infected fruit from the tree and the ground before 
the blooming begins. Destroy all sour orange trees in 
the vicinity of the lemon trees, because these are very 
susceptible to the disease, and will give trouble. Spray 
with the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate first 
when the fruit begins to appear; spray a second time two 
weeks after; and a third spraying may be required two or 
three weeks later, when the blooming season is over. 

The ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate is made 



*Bulletin 8, Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Dept. Agri. 



174 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



by taking 5 ounces of copper carbonate and mixing with 1 
pint of water to a thick paste; dilute with V/ 2 gallons 
of water in a wooden bucket; stir vigorously, and at the 
same time add 2 pints of strong ammonia, or 5*^ pints of 
ammonia water; when dissolved dilute to 50 gallons by 
the addition of water. 



SPRAYING APPARATUS AND METHODS. 

No garden or orchard is well equipped without the 
apparatus necessary to combat the attacks of insects and 




Fig. 67 — Victor Spraying Machine. 

fungi. The experiment stations have studied so carefully 
and thoroughly the subject of spraying and its appliances, 
and have published, within the past ten years, so many 
bulletins containing hundreds of pages of valuable ad- 
vice to those contemplating spraying, that the practice 
has become almost as universal among fruit growers and 
market aardeners as is the use of commercial fertilizers 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



175 



among rarmers. In the preparation of this chapter very 
liberal use has been made of these bulletins, and the 
reader is advised to secure these publications if fuller 
information is desired on any point not elaborated in this 
book. In fact, the wise gardener will have his name en- 
tered on the mailing lists of these stations so that all 
bulletins relating to vegetables and their cultivation may 
be sent him. These bulletins are sent free to any one 
who will apply for them. 

There are numerous spraying pumps and appliances 




Fig. 68 — Barrel Truck for Spraying. 

on the market, some of which are cheap and others are 
quite expensive. In the purchase of an outfit, however, 
the following essentials must be carefully noted and in- 
sisted upon, if effective and satisfactory service is to be 
secured: 1. Durability; 2. Capacity for work contemplated; 
3. Simplicity in construction; 4. Ease with which the 



176 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



parts may be reached and separated for repair; 5. Effi- 
ciency of agitator; G. Non-corrosive parts which are 
brought in contact with the liquids. 




Fig. 69— Bellows. Large Single Cone. 

Experiments have proven that the following apparatus 
will meet most of these requisites: 

One of the simplest forms for applying dry powders is 
shown in Figure 69. The powder is placed in the cone- 
shaped vessel, at the bottom of which is an orifice, and 




Fig. 70— The Leggett Powder Gun. 

through this the powder can sift, and, by working the 
bellows, the poison is forced out over the plants. Another 
form is shown in Figure 70, known as Leggett's powder 
gun. The reservoir containing the insecticides is located 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



L > • 



177 



near the middle of the gun, and by turning a crank a fan 
is operated which blows the powder out through the tube 
on the plant where desired. The reservoir contains about 
one quart, and the holes in the base are adjustable, so 
that any amount of powder may be sent out at any time 
desired. 

Knapsack sprayers are made to hold about five gallons 




Fig. 71 — Knapsack Sprayer. 

of the spraying materials, and the apparatus is so con- 
structed as to enable the manipulator to carry the 
machine on his shoulders. The discharge 1 pipe should 
enter the top of the tank, and not at the bottom. Where 
the pipe enters the bottom it frequently becomes clogged 
with the mixtures, thus producing continual sources of 
annoyance. The valves are supplied with rubber balls, 
12 



ITS 



GAKDEKING FOB THE SOUTH. 



which should be substituted with marbles when kerosene 
emulsion is used, because the kerosene causes rubber to 
swell and close the orifice. Figure 71 gives the general 
form of these knapsack sprayers. 
When a considerable area of the garden or orchard is 





Cyclone Nozzle, with Direct 

Charge and Disgorger 

for Thin Sprays. 



Cyclone Nozzle, with 

. Lateral Discharge 

for Thin Sprays. 





Wire Extended Suction 
Hose. 



Heavy Cyclone Nozzle, with 

Oblique Discharge for 

Thick Sprays. 

The above illustrations are from Bulletin No. 20, Division 
of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. 

Fig. 72-VERMOREL NOZZLES. 

to be treated it becomes necessary to use larger machines 
for holding the spraying materials. The best patterns 
have the force pump attached to barrels, as is shown in 



c 

o 
Q 






INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



179 



Figures o7 and 68. These machines are so constructed 
that as the pumping is carried on the fluids are kept in 
constant motion, insuring a more perfect mixture of the 
ingredients. 

The nozzle used in the working of these spraying 
machines is a very important item. The best nozzle is 
the one which sends out a tine spray over all portions of 
the plant. It is not desirable to drench the tree until the 
liquid runs off on the ground, but every part must be well 
covered where there are indications of fungi or attacks 
from insects. The Vermorel nozzle is considered to be 
one of the best on the market. However, it throws the 
fine spray but a few feet from the orifice, and this is a 





Fig. 73— McGowan's Nozzle. 

disadvantage where tall trees are to be treated. This diffi- 
culty may be obviated by using a bamboo extension. 
This is a bamboo cane in which is placed a %-inch brass 
tube with couplings to enable the manipulator to attach 
it to the nozzle, and to the tank containing the spraying 
materials. 

The McGowan nozzle is considered by many gardeners 
to possess the advantage over the Vermorel form in the 
fact that it not only sends out a fine spray, but it is 
thrown with such force as to reach the highest trees in 
the orchard. In this respect it has its advantages. It is 
generally conceded, however, that for short distances the 
Vermorel is the best sprayer, particularly for knapsack 
work. It is good policy, where the gardener can afford it, 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 



181 



to keep both patterns 011 hand, so that an}- character of 
work in the spraying line needed in the garden and 
orchard may be carried <m with the least delay and 
trouble. 

In the use of the spraying material judgment must be 
exercised. Of course, one solution will not do for all 
purposes, and the gardener must first determine what 
character of disease the plant has before making the 




Fig. 74— Just right to spray for Codling Moth. Cornell Exp. 
Station Bulletin 142. 



application of the remedy, otherwise his labor may be 
thrown away. As a general guide in this matter, the 
following rules are given: 

1. Do not spray the plants while in bloom, because the 
delicate organs may be injured; insects which are bene- 
ficial, such as bees, etc., may be destroyed. 

2. There are a number of different formulae recom- 
mended by writers on the subject of spraying, but the 
experience of our best horticulturists and gardeners has 



182 



GAKDEXING FOE THE SOUTH. 



reduced them to two fungicides, viz.: Bordeaux mixture 
and ammoniaeal carbonate of copper, and two insecti- 
cides, viz. : Paris green for chewing insects and kerosene 
emulsion for those insects which feed by sucking. In 
the calendar given at the end of this chapter other formu- 
lae are given which may be relied on, but, as has been 
already said, the four mentioned above will be found suffi- 
cient for nearly all cases. 

3. The lime solution and the sulphate of copper should 
be passed through a fine strainer and the former (milk 




Fig. 75— Almost too late to spray. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 142. 

of lime) must be cold before mixing with the copper solu- 
tion, otherwise the blue color characteristic of the Bor- 
deaux may not be secured. 

4. Unless the spraying is well performed the labor will 
be lost. Be sure that all portions of the plant diseased 
are reached with the preparation, because if a small sur- 
face is omitted an active center of disease may continue 
its growth, and in a short time the plant will be in a bad 
plight. 




■o 

-I 

&) 
5' 

(TO 

-^ 

C 

3 

■o 
w 



o 
3 

03 

5' 




184 



GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 



5. Before any application of the spraying solution is 
made a careful examination of the plants must be made 
to determine, as far as possible, what is the character of 
the attack, whether made by insects or by fungi. The 
calendar at the end of this chapter will largely assist the 
operator in determining this question of suitable spray- 




Fig. 78— The Kerowater. 

ing mixture as soon as the character of the disease is 
known. For instance, " it would be useless to spray with 
kerosene emulsion to repress mildew, to combat currant 
worms with Bordeaux mixture, or to apply Paris green 
for an attack of plant lice." (Geneva Exp. Station.) 

6. Some of these mixtures are poisonous, and great 
care must be exercised in their use so as to prevent 
serious accidents. Another point must be remembered, 



INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 185 

viz.: that these fungicides and insecticides arc not cura- 
tives of the disease, but are simply preventatives, so the 
spraying must be done at the proper times in order to 
reach the cause of the trouble before it is too deeply 
rooted in the tissues of the plant. Secure the best labor 
for this work, and use the best machines procurable. 

The Kerowater. — The demand for a sprayer that will 
unite the kerosene oil and water when needed, and at 
the moment that the two come from the machine, has 
induced the Gould Manufacturing Company of Seneca 
Falls, New York, to devise the " Kerowater," which in 
many respects is a handy and convenient sprayer. The 
kerosene oil is placed in the oil tank located within the 
barrel, which is clearly indicated in the figure. The water 
is placed in the barrel. Each tank has its own pump, and 
the two fluids do not come together until they reach the 
discharge pipe, and the proportion of kerosene oil is main- 
tained at the will of the operator. The use of this and 
similar machines obviates the necessity of preparing the 
emulsion beforehand. 



1SG GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

CHAPTER IX. 

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 

There are two modes of propagating plants, viz.: by 
*<<<! and by division. Species are propagated by seed, but 
varieties, except in the ease of annuals, generally by 
division, as they do not always continue true from seed. 
There are also two modes of propagating by division; in 
the one, the plants root in the ground as suckers, layers, 
and cuttings, and in the other they are made to unite with 
another plant, as in budding, grafting, and inarching. 
While all plants are naturally multiplied by seed, most 
kinds also allow of propagation by division, as by taking- 
offsets, or parting their roots, by suckers, cuttings, run- 
ners, layers, etc. Propagation by seed often produces 
new varieties, which are only to be perpetuated by 
division of their roots, cuttings, layers, or by budding and 
grafting upon stocks. 

Propagation by Seed. — The most healthy and vigor- 
ous plants are generally produced by seed, though many 
varieties can only be perpetuated by propagating by 
division. The following conditions are necessary, says 
Thompson, for successful propagation by seed: 1. That 
the seeds be perfectly ripened. 2. That they have been 
properly kept until the period of sowing. 3. That they be 
sown at the proper time; and, finally, that the sowing be 
performed in the proper manner. And it may be added 
that to accomplish the object of sowing, the seeds sown 
must be of just the kind intended to be used, and true to 
that kind. 

The Maturity and Soundness of Seeds are neces- 
sary to ensure the growth and perfection of the young 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 187 

plant. These can generally be determined by their 
external and internal appearance. If in cutting the 
larger seeds the substance of the seed be of the natural 
color, and the embryo be fresh and perfect, it will prob- 
ably germinate. So if externally they have a clear color 
and a fresh, plump appearance, they will be likely to 
grow. The soundness of those that sink in water when 
good (and most seeds do), may be tested by putting them 
in warm water. Nearly all sound seeds will sink in, this 
fluid in a short time. Of the finer seeds, a skillful eye 
will determine the quality with the microscope. But 
the surest test is planting a few properly in a pot, pro- 
tecting the surface from drying with a square of glass, 
and keeping it in a warm room, or plunged in a hot-bed 
or in a pit, giving it the heat naturally required by the 
species for germination. A simple seed tester can be 
made by the use of cheese cloth, on which the seed are 
spread, covered with another cloth and placed on moist 
sand, the whole covered with a board slightly raised to 
permit of circulation of air. 

Seeds are more often unsound from mouldiness or age 
than from not having been properly ripened. They should 
be stored where they will be least affected by the pres- 
ence of moisture and the changes of temperature. About 
40°, but not lower, is said to be the best. Many oily seeds 
become rancid, and will not vegetate when sown. 

Generally, seeds should be kept dry, but acorns and 
chestnuts thus kept soon lose their vitality, and must be 
kept until planted in rather dry loam, or slightly damp- 
ened moss, well packed. Nearly all seeds keep better in 
closely packed dry soil, the air being thus mostly ex- 
cluded, than hermetically sealed in bottles. In close 
stopped bottles or jugs, the air often becomes saturated 
with the moisture and exhalations from the seeds, which, 
in the impure, damp, close atmosphere, soon become com- 



188 



GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 



pletely spoiled. But peas, beans, and other seeds, where 
liable to insects, after they are well dried, should be put 
in bottles well corked, and a few drops of spirits of tur- 
pentine, of chloroform, or a bit of camphor, put in with 
the seeds. Either of these is fatal to the insects. For 
most seeds it is sufficient that they be gathered, when 
fully ripe, in dry weather, and thoroughly dried before 
they are threshed. If any moisture then appears, dry 
them further, and store in paper bags where they will 
be free from damp and vermin. In the first column of the 
following table is given the time that certain seeds will 
keep, according to Vilmorin; the second column gives the 
earlier table of Cobbet. It is generally best to select 
fresh seeds, as seeds lose their vitality very soon. 



Artichoke 

Asparagus 

Balm 

Basil 

Bean 

" (Kidney). 

Beet 

Borage 

Broccoli 

Burnet 

Cabbage 

Calabash 

Camomile 

Capsicum 

Caraway 

Carrot 

Cauliflower. . . 

Celery 

Chervil 

Cives 

Corn 

Corn-Salad . . . 

Coriander 

Cress 

" (Winter). 

" (Water).. 
Cucumber. 
Dandelion . . . 



/ ars. 
.5— 3 
.4— 4 



.6— 2 
.6— 2 
.3— 1 
.5—10 
.3— 4 
.5— 4 
.2— 6 

:.— 4 
.5— 7 
. — 2 
.4— 2 
.2— 4 

4— 1 
.5— 4 
. -10 
.2— 6 

2- 3 

2— 3 
.5— 2 
. — 3 
.5— 3 

3— 
.4— 

5-10 
. —10 



Dock 

Endive 

Eggplant 

Fennel 

Garlick 

(iourd 

Hop 

Horseradish 

Hyssop 

Jerusalem Artichoke 

Kale 

" (*eat 

Lavender 

Leek 

Lentil 

Lettuce 

Mangel Wurzel 

Marjoram 

Marigold. 

Melon 

Mint 

Mustard 

Nasturtium 

Okra 

Onion 

Parsley 

Parsnip 

Pea (English) 



I ears. 
.3— 1 
9— 4 

— 7 
.5— 5 
. — 3 
.5—10 
. — 2 
. — 4 
. — 6 
. — 3 

5— 4 
.3— 3 
. — 2 
.2— 2 
. — 3 

:>— 3 
.5—10 

2— 4 
. — 3 

5—10 

— 4 
5— 4 
:>— 2 

. — 4 

2— 2 

3— 6 
2- 1 

4— 1 



Years. 

Pennyroyal — 2 

Potato (Sweet) 2—3 

Potato (Irish) — 3 

Pumpkin 5—10 

Purslane 8— 2 

Radish 5— 2 

Rampion 5 — 2 

Rape — 4 

Rhubarb 3— 1 

Rosemary 4— 3 

Rue — 3 

Rutabaga 5 — 4 

Sage — 3 

Salsify 2— 2 

Samphire — 3 

Savory 3— 2 

Scorzonera 2— 2 

Shalot — 4 

Skirret 2— 4 

Sorrel 2— 7 

Spinach 5 — 4 

Squash 5—10 

Tansy — 3 

Tarragon — 4 

Thyme 2—2 

Tomato 5— 2 

Turnip 5 — 4 

Wormwood — 2 



The Time of Sowing all indigenous seeds in any 
locality is most favorable when they naturally fall from 
the plants. Hardy annuals, likewise, do much better if 
sown in autumn, or quite early in the spring. If not in 
the ground early, they flower late and badly. There are 
some exceptions, as in the case of haws and cedar berries, 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 189 

which hang until swallowed by birds, and sprout more 
freely after having undergone the digestive process. 
SSonie exotics of a hardy character likewise succeed best 
when sown at the time the seed falls, vegetating in 
autumn, growing slowly through the colder months, and 
progressing rapidly when spring opens. Others coming 
from a different climate, starting into growth in autumn, 
would perish during the winter months; but kept and 
sown when the temperature of the air and soil in spring 
is suitable for vegetating them, they will advance rapidly 
as the weather becomes more and more favorable to 
growth. In some cases, where it might be best to sow 
at the natural period, if the aim was simply to continue 
the species, other motives render it necessary to sow at 
other times. A succession of flowers or a continued sup- 
ply of vegetables during the season may, in the case of 
annual or biennial plants, make repeated sowings at 
proper intervals desirable. 

Trees and shrubs it is well to sow, if practicable, at the 
natural period, but it is desirable that the seedlings should 
not make their appearance above ground until a favor- 
able season for growth. This is most readily secured in the 
case of seeds that do not keep well dry, by stratification 
or mixing them with soil in autumn, but not encouraging 
growth until spring. This is done by placing a layer 
of seeds upon the surface of the soil, then a layer an inch 
or two thick of sand or light soil, and so on, the whole 
being laid so as to form a cone, over which is spread a 
covering of soil to protect from w T et and frost. This should 
be done where least likely to invite the attacks of mice 
and other animals. Small quantities of seeds of this kind 
may be stratified in boxes and flower pots, covered from 
rats and mice and placed in a cool situation until spring. 
Holly seed requires to be kept thus two years. When 
vegetation begins fo fake place, the seeds, still mixed 



190 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 

with the earth in which they have lain, can be sown in 
soil properly prepared. The larger seeds can be taken 
from the soil and planted out in the drills at proper 
distances. 

Seeds Must Be Sown in the Proper Manner. — 
Seedsmen are often blamed for selling bad seed, when 
the sole fault is with the planter. That seed may germi- 
nate, moisture, air, and a certain degree of warmth, vary- 
ing with each variety, are necessary. Chickweed will 
vegetate at 32° F., but for most seeds of plants of tem- 
perate climates the best germinating temperature is 
about 00° F.; of half-hardy plants 70° F„; of tropical 
plants about 80° F.; but some require 100° F. 

Light must also be excluded until the root can derive 
nourishment from the soil. The first effect of air, heat, 
and moisture upon the seed is to change its starchy mat- 
ter into the proper food of the embryo. If at this time 
the seed be withered by exposure to heat without suffi- 
cient covering, it will perish. It often happens that seeds 
are planted in a fresh-dug soil, and the above change in 
the properties of the seed takes place, but the earth not 
being pressed upon it, the seed dries up and the embryo 
perishes. Others, again, are buried too deeply, and 
though the seed swells, yet sufficient air and warmth are 
not obtained to give the embryo life. The seed should 
be just so far covered as to exclude light, and afford 
barely sufficient moisture for its wants. The first thing 
in sowing is a suitable preparation of the soil, so that 
the young roots thrown out may easily penetrate it. It 
must be made more or less fine for different seeds. Peas 
and beans do not require the soil to be as finely pulverized 
as small seeds. The seeds must also be firmly fixed in the 
soil, and pressed by the earth in every part, in order to 
retain moisture sufficient to encourage vegetatiou; but 
they should not be so deeply buried as to be deprived of 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 191 

air, or have their ascending shoots impeded by too much 
soil above. In all cases, seeds should be sown in fresh- 
dng soil, that they may have the benefit of the moisture 
therein, but they should never be put in when the soil is 
really wet, as the ground will bake and the seed perish. 
Moist weather in summer is excellent for putting in seeds, 
provided the ground is still friable. Just before a light 
rain is the best possible time for sowing turnips and 
other summer-sown crops. 

Seeds of most kinds should be sown in drills or rows. 
In these they can be placed at any required depth, while 
if broadcast, some will be uncovered, and others too 
deeply buried in the earth. Tf sown in drills you will 
know where to look for the young plants, and they can 
have the soil dug around them, which will enable them to 
grow much faster, and are much more easily thinned and 
cultivated. When the seeds are planted, the earth should 
generally be pressed upon them with a roller, by treading 
with the feet, in the case of large seeds, and for the 
smaller by smoothing the surface with the back of a 
spade, or by walking over them on a board. Pressing the 
earth upon them will retain the moisture about them, and 
hasten their vegetation. When they come up, keep them 
free from weeds, and thin them as hereafter directed in 
treating of each plant. 

A great deal of the subsequent growth of the plant 
depends upon their not being sown too thickly, or at any 
rate upon being thinned properly as soon as the young- 
seedlings appear. A plant raised among a lot of crowded 
seedlings is very apt to die before it has made its fourth 
leaf. This seldom happens if the seeds are sown thin, and 
a little powdered charcoal is mixed with the earth. 

Some seeds, which, like those of the carrot, adhere 
together, must be rubbed in the hands with dry sand to 
insure a more equal distribution in the drill. Others, 



192 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

like the beet, are covered with a hard shell, and others 
still with a tough skin. Both kinds may be soaked in 
water until the shell or skin is somewhat softened, and by 
notching into the covering germination is hastened. For 
broadcast sowing, very small seeds are often mixed with 
fine soil in order to ensure their being scattered more 
equally. 

Very often seeds fail to come up because they are sown 
too deep or because they are sown in very dry earth. 
Other causes of failure are excessive moisture and 
either excess or lack of bottom heat. M. Appelius 
observes that seedlings raised in hot-beds or frames 
frequently cause disappointment from bad management. 
Asters, Stocks, Phlox, Petunias, Pansies, etc., do better 
in a very mild hot-bed, and produce stronger plants 
less likely to die off. When the dung of a hot-bed has 
given 'off its first heat, it begins to absorb moisture 
from the earth with which it is covered. And as 
the earth of the bed generally slopes to the south, the 
greater part of the water given off runs toward the front, 
and at the back of the bed the earth in which the seeds 
are sown is often too dry. Hence seeds that vegetate 
slowly and need constant damp, as Phlox and Pansy, 
should be sown at the front of the bed, and those that 
grow more readily at the top or back. The time required 
for certain seeds to germinate at a temperature of from 
52° to 65° is as follows (M. Appelius): Garden cress, 2 
days; spinach, 3; cabbage, turnip, and lettuce, 4; peas, 
endive, poppy, melons, cucumbers, mustard, 5; lupine, 
lentil, horseradish, radish, onions (often also in 15 days), 
leeks, 6; barley, rye, maize, broccoli, beans, beet, 7; wheat, 
thyme, marjoram, and some kidney beans, 8; marrowfat 
peas, 9; vetch, sugar beet, tobacco, hemp, 10; tomato, 
sea-kale, scorzonera, carrots, savory, basil, stocks, celery, 
12 (turnip rooted celery sometimes 20); anise, fennel, 13: 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 193 

sunflower, artichoke, burnet, 14; balm, clover, 15; laven- 
der, purslane, 16; sage, popper, 20; parsnip, parsley, 
asparagus, 21 ; and potato in 28 days. It seems that seeds 
lighter than water do not germinate so soon as those 
heavier. 

Though seeds will vegetate with due supplies of heat 
and moisture, a fertile soil is necessary for their further 
progress. Fine, light, rich mould favors the vegetation 
and early progress of most seeds, though many, after they 
are a little advanced, flourish best in strong, heavy loam. 
A compost of peat or leaf-mould, tine sand, and well rot- 
ted manure, should be prepared, and if all the finer seeds 
are covered therewith, one great difficulty in growing 
tine vegetables on stiff soils will be removed, as well as 
their early maturity secured. Even in dry weather one 
can generally bring up seeds by digging and' finely pul- 
verizing the earth; then soaking it well with water that 
has been some time exposed to the air to raise its tem- 
perature; then sowing the seed in drills of the proper 
depth, and sifting over the bed a coat of this compost. 
In the case of large seeds, as corn, beans, etc., after the 
ground is prepared, only the hills or drills need to be thus 
soaked, and then covered with the compost. 

Special directions for managing seeds requiring 
peculiar care will be given hereafter. 

But the best management will be of no avail if one does 
not get the right seeds. It is not pleasant to see Early 
Yorks growing where one sowed what he bought for 
Drumheads. The way to avoid such mistakes is either to 
raise your own seeds and carefully label them, or to know 
of whom you buy. Your own eye in the case of many 
seeds will not assist you at all in discriminating. 

Seed must not only be of the right sort, but true to that 
sort. Early York cabbage seed may bo sown, or Scarlet 
radish seed; yet, from having been planted near to some 
13 



194 GARDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH. 

other varieties, the seed is crossed with them and the 
most valuable qualities of the variety lost. The cabbage 
may be late or long-legged, and not head at all, or the 
radish tough and misshapen. 

Preserving Seed. — The very finest plants should be 
chosen for this purpose — that is, those most true to their 
kind and most perfect in shape and quality. In the cab- 
bage, for instance, a small, short stem, well formed head 
with few loose leaves; in the turnip, large bulb, small 
neck, few, short and slender-stalked leaves, and solid 
flesh. In the radish, high color (unless white), small nock, 
few and short leaves. In the case of flowers, seed should 
be saved only from those most perfectly developed. 

Great care should be taken to preserve the varieties 
unmixed, for, as just stated, if varieties of the same spe- 
cies, or very similar species, are planted near each other, 
they will cross and produce untrue seed. In this way, it 
is true, valuable varieties often originate, but the chances 
are that the produce will be worthless. There can be no 
cross between a cabbage and a carrot, because they are 
of totally different families, and there is no similarity; 
but all the varieties of cabbage will cross with each other, 
with Brussels sprouts, in short with all others of the 
genus Brassica. So of corn ; in a few years the early varie- 
ties from the North, planted in Southern gardens, become 
so intermingled with the ordinary sorts, that the early 
character is lost. The difficulty of keeping seeds pure 
renders it advisable not to save seeds of two varieties of 
any species the same year, except in large gardens. Many 
kinds of seed it is more advantageous to buy of the regu- 
lar seedsmen than to grow and save them at home. The 
finest seeds in the world are grown where an amateur 
makes one or two species of plants, like Truffaut with 
Asters, a specialty, using every possible care for their 
improvement. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 



195 




Crossing and Hybridizing. — These terms are used by 
many as meaning the same thing; strictly speaking, 
hybridising is when two distinct species are made to form 
a union, while crowing is where the same takes place with 

varieties of the same spe- 
cies. To make the matter 
plain, we must give the struc- 
ture of the flower. The organs 
concerned in the production 
of the fruit or seed are the 
stamens, which correspond to 
the male organs, and the 
pistil or pistils, which are the 
female organs. These two are 

Fig. 79-Flax Flower. ^ ^ mogt papt [n Qne 

flower, and differ greatly in number in the different fami- 
lies. The simplest case is where both kinds are in one 
flower, as in Figure 79, which represents a flower of the 
flax split down, to show the arrangement of its parts. 
The central body is the pistil, and is surrounded by five 
stamens, which are shorter. It will be seen 
that each stamen is composed of two parts — 
a slender portion, the filament, which bears 
a two-lobed body, the anther, which produces 
a fine fertilizing powder, the pollen . The 
pistil has an enlarged base, the ovary, which 
contains the ovules, which are to become 
seeds; above this is usually a prolonged por- 
tion, the style. The styles may be one or 
several; in the case of the flax there are five, Fig. so— stamens 
each one of which is surmounted by a stigma, 
that part which receives the fertilizing powder, or pollen. 
The stamens and pistils are not always found together 
in the same flower. In Indian corn they are separated, 
but on the same plant the tassel containing the stamens 




196 GAKDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 

or male organs, while the silk and ear are the pistillate 
parts. Such plants are called monoecious. In other in- 
stances, as spinach, the flowers which contain the stamens 
are not found upon the same individual plant with those 
that bear the pistils. These are called dioecious plants. 

Cross breeding, where both sexes are united in the same 
blossom, is accomplished by removing the stamens and 
dusting the pistil with the pollen of a different variety, a 
simple process; but from the resulting seed a new variety, 
partaking somewhat of the qualities of both parents, will 
be produced. Care is required in the process. A blossom 
must be selected not fully expanded, and all the anthers 
be cut out and removed. Protect the blossom with a 
loose bag of gauze to keep off the bees. As soon as the 
blossom is fully expanded, collect on a cameFs-hair pencil 
the pollen from a full-blown flower of the variety selected 
for the male parent, and apply it to the stigma or point 
of the pistil. Success depends upon the careful extraction 
of the anthers before they are advanced enough to ferti- 
lize the pistil, the application of the pollen when in perfec- 
tion — that is, in a powdery state, upon the stigma while 
still moist — and the prevention of natural fertilization 
from pollen carried by insects or by the wind. Cross 
breeding often takes place naturally. If different varie- 
ties of corn are planted near together, often three or four 
kinds and colors of grain will be found upon one ear from 
natural intermixture. 

But there are limits to the power of crossing plants. 
Those between two varieties of the same species, as be- 
tween two kinds of corn, or two varieties of the pear, are 
common enough, and these are fruitful and produce per- 
fect seeds. In the same genera, also, certain nearly allied 
species are capable of fertilizing each other; the offspring 
in this case is called a hybrid, and does not always pro- 
duce perfect seeds. Thus the different species of the 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 197 

strawberry, also those of the gourd and melon family, 
readily intermix. So also do those of the rose. But no 
one has succeeded in crossing- the apple with the pear, or 
the gooseberry with the currant, though in both cases 
they are species of the same genus. Still less will such 
totally different plants as oranges and pomegranates 
intermix. 

Our flower gardens in modern times have been greatly 
enriched by cross breeding and hybridizing. Thus have 
originated a great number of new and beautiful roses, 
rhododendrons, azaleas, camellias, fuchsias, dahlias, etc., 
so beautiful in color and perfect in form and habit. 

Propagation by Division. — Every other mode of pro- 
pagating plants, except by seed, whether it be by bulbs, 
tubers, runners, suckers, parting the roots, layers, cut- 
tings, buddiug or grafting, is effected by a division of the 
plant to be increased. 

Bulbs. — Propagation by division, in the case of bulbs 
or tubers, is analogous to sowing seeds. The new bulbs 
may be separated when the leaves of the mother-plant 
decay. The onion, hyacinth, tulip, etc., are generally 
taken up and stored in a moderately dry, airy place, until 
it is the proper season for growth, and are thought to 
grow better in consequence of their surplus moisture be- 
ing evaporated. The conns or bulbs of the crocus, thus 
treated, produce better plants and stronger flowers. Re- 
moval gives an opportunity for changing the soil before 
the bulbs are reset. There are, however, many scaly 
bulbs, as the lily, that are injured if long out of the 
ground, and if not planted again at the proper season, 
the strength of the plant is much diminished. Bulbs 
generally like a light, rich, sandy soil, well pulverized, 
and most bulbs and tubers require to be planted more 
deeply than seeds. 

Tubers may be taken up when mature, and kept until 



198 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

the proper season for replanting. They may generally be 
cut into as many pieces as they have eyes, and each eye 
will produce a plant. The tubers of the Chinese yam have 
no visible buds, but if cut into pieces and planted, buds 
will push out from the wrinkles that appear upon its 
surface. 

Runners are thrown out by the strawberry and many 
other plants. They spring from the crown of the plant, 
deriving from it their nourishment, and at a greater or 
less distance from the parent plant throw out a bud above 
and small projections or rudiments of roots, which, in 
favorable conditions, strike into the soil and help to nour- 
ish the young plant above. The growing point of the 
runner extends to form another new plant beyond. Run- 
ners cannot well take root in dry weather, but in contact 
with moist soil the roots soon strike. To facilitate the 
rooting, the joint is often pegged down, or a small stone 
placed over it a little behind the bud, which preserves the 
earth in a moist condition as well as keeps the joint close 
to the soil. If it is desired to obtain as many plants as 
possible, do not permit the parent plant to waste its vigor 
in producing flowers aud fruit, but cut off the flower 
stalks as they appear. If strong plants are desired, stop 
each runner after it has made one or two plants. The 
new plants, when well rooted, are ready for removal at 
the proper season. 

Suckers. — These proceed either from the root or from 
the stem, or collar of the plant. Root Suckers are pro- 
duced from those plants which send out stray horizontal 
roots, as the sucker is in fact a bud from one of these roots 
which has pushed its way through the soil and become a 
stem. As this stem generally forms fibrous roots of its 
own above the point of junction with the parent root, it 
may be slipped off and planted like a rooted cutting. 

Root suckers are thrown up by some plants, like the 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 199 

currant, close to the main stem ; by others, like the plum 
and paper mulberry, at considerable distance. Rasp- 
berries, poplars, roses, lilacs, and many other shrubs and 
trees, are thus readily propagated, the offspring with the 
roots that properly belong to it being carefully separated 
from the parent and replanted in suitable soil. The roots 
of the parent plant should be injured as little as possible. 
Remove the soil, and if the sucker springs from a largo 
root, detach a slice of it with the sucker instead of sever- 
ing it. The supply of nourishment being diminished by 
separation from the parent plant, the head of the plant 
removed must be cut iu, except in the rase of coniferous 
plants, to prevent evaporation. 

The great objection to planting suckers is, that plants 
grown from them have a much greater tendency to throw 
out suckers, and thereby become exceedingly annoying in 
gardens, by encroaching on other plants, than if propa- 
gated by other methods. 

Xtvnt Suckers spring from the stem of the old plant 
where its base is beneath the surface. Shoots originating 
at this point frequently strike root and become rooted 
suckers. In plants in which this natural tendency is not 
sufficiently strong, it may be increased by earthing them 
up well with good mould, which may be kept moist by 
mulching. The quince and other plants are propagated 
in this manner. 

Propagation by Slips. — This is the mode in which 
many small undershrubs, like box, sage, rue and lavender, 
are increased. They are dug up in spring or fall, and the 
young shoots, with some portion of root attached, slipped 
off with the thumb and finger, and if small, they are 
planted a year in nursery rows. Many kinds of plants 
grow from slips of the young branches with little or no 
root attached. The number of young plants to be obtained 
by division can be increased in some cases by sprinkling 



200 GAKDEXIKG FOB, THE SOUTH. 

fine soil among them that the lower branches may strikd 
root in it, or taking up the plant and resetting deeper 
than before. Box edging when overgrown, if taken up 
in spring, partly divided and replanted so that the base 
of each shoot is covered, can, after rooting, again be 
divided into as many plants as there were shoots. Stem 
suckers are often called slips. 

Parting the Roots is the ordinary way of increasing 
herbaceous perennials with annual stems, such as 
phloxes, chrysanthemums, etc., which can be taken up in 
spring or autumn, and divided by hand, or with the 
trowel, knife or spade, into a number of plants with a 
portion of root to each. 

Propagation by Layers. — A layer is a branch or shoot 
bent down into, and covered with, the soil, in order to 
make it take root. Meanwhile it is fed by the parent 
stock, with which its communication is, however, partially 
obstructed to make the returning sap form roots, instead 
of going back into the stock. With some plants a suf- 
ficient check is given by simply bending and properly 
covering it with earth; the branch is held in its place 
by hooked pegs until if takes root. But in general this is 
not enough. The most common way of obstructing the 
return flow of sap is when the shoot is bent into the earth 
to half cut it through near the bend, the free portion of 
the w r ound being called a tongue. This is kept open by 
a bit of twig, or piece of crock. Such layers are in fact 
cuttings, only partially separated from parent-plants. 
The incision is made through the bark at the base of a 
bud. The object of the gardener is to induce the layer 
to emit roots into the earth at the tongue. There are 
other modes of effecting this. 

With this view, he twists the shoot half round, so as to 
injure the wood vessels; he bonds it back so that only a 
bud or two appears above ground, and when much w^ater- 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 201 

ing is required, he places a handful of silver saud around 
the tongued part, theu pressing the earth down with his 
foot, so as to secure the layer, he leaves it without further 
care. The intention of both tongueing and twisting is to 
prevent the return of the sap from the layer into the main 
stem, while a small portion is allowed to rise out of the 
latter into the former. The effect of this operation is to 
compel the returning sap to organize itself as roots, in- 
stead of passing downwards to form wood; the bonding 
back is to assist this object, b} T pre- 
venting the expenditure of sap in the 
completion of leaves. The bud left 
on the tongue favors the emission of 
roots, as a tendency exists in nearly 



— 



*< 




Fig. 81 — Layering. 

all plants to throw out roots at the joints, and the silver 
sand secures the drainage so necessary to cutting. 

The old mode of forming the tongue, and the best, 
unless the shoot is brittle, is shown in the figure, where 
the tongue is shown upon the underside of the layer. "A 
plan," says the Gardener's Monthly, "which is now much 
in vogue with the best propagators, is to cut the tongue 
on the upper surface. On bending down into the soil, the 
tongue is then twisted on one side, and the young shoot 
intended to form the future plant may then be lifted up 
and bent towards the parent as rapidly as one pleases, 
without any danger of it snapping off. There is another 
advantage in this way of layering. It is often necessary, 



202 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

in the stereotyped way, to place a chip or something be- 
tween the tongue to keep it open. By this, the twisting 
of the tongue aside keeps it always separate from the old 
cut. Again, by this mode, very green shoots can be ope- 
rated on — magnolias, for instance — in June, and plants 
may be got well rooted by fall, instead of waiting for the 
wood to ripen in August, when we have to wait for an- 
other year before our layer is sufficiently rooted to take 
from its parent. Another method of forming the tongue 
is to make the cut upon the side, as in Figure 81. 

Instead of forming a tongue to make a shoot throw out 
roots, the branch may be split in the center for two inches, 
more or less according to its size, and the parts separated 
with a bit of wood. Roots will be thrown out along the 
edges of the split. The returning sap may also be ar- 
rested by ringing; in which case a ring of bark is removed 
from the branch for the purpose, or by a wire twisted 
tightly around it pinching the bark. 

When the roots are thrown out naturally wherever a 
joint touches the earth, as in the verbena, the branches 
only require pegging down to make them form new 
plants. Where it is difficult to get the shoot to be layered 
down to the soil, a portion of the soil may be raised to the 
plant, as the Chinese gardeners practice in a pot, the 
earth in which should be kept steadily moist. 

Another mode of layering is by insertion of the grow- 
ing point in the soil. When the shoots of a raspberry or 
gooseberry are of some length and firmness, if the grow- 
ing points are inserted in well-dug soil, they will form a 
nice bundle of roots and a good bud ready for transplant- 
ing in autumn. This is worthy of trial with many other 
plants. 

The grape is best layered by digging a trench and lay- 
ing therein a thrifty cane in the spring. Let remain until 
young shoots, three or four inches long, are formed; then 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 203 

gently draw a little of the soil into the trench covering 
the parent cane, and as the shoots increase in strength, 
fill up the trench, and each young shoot will make a fine 
plant by autumn. 

In general, the best season for layering is before the 
sap begins to rise in the spring, or, in the case of wood 
of the same season's growth, in the summer after June. A 
good time for roses is after the first bloom is over. Lay- 
ered at this time, they will generally be tit to take up the 
ensuing winter, but most plants require twelve months, 
and some two years, before they will root. In nurseries 
the ground is prepared around each stool by digging and 
manuring, and the branches laid down neatly, so as to 
form a circle of rays around the stool, with the ends rising 
all around the circle to about the same height. 

Cuttings. — A cutting is a part of a plant detached from 
the parent stock, which, placed in proper conditions, will 
emit roots and become in its turn a new plant. It may bo 
a portion of the stem, the branches, or the root, and some- 
times even a leaf. 

In a cutting, as in a growing plant, two forces are in 
constant activity, those of absorption and of evaporation. 
Its life cannot be long continued, unless these correspond 
with each other. A cutting, from the lack of roots, absorbs 
feebly from the soil; hence evaporation must be dimin- 
ished to correspond, and the base of the cutting must be 
in contact with a substance more or less humid. Evapora- 
tion is diminished by planting in a northern exposure, 
shading, the use of bell-glasses, etc. The more herbaceous 
or immature a cutting may be, the greater care is required 
to protect it from excessive evaporation. 

Cuttings of hardy deciduous trees and shrubs should 
be taken off after the leaves fall, or before the sap rises in 
the spring. Those that strike readily in the open ground 
in mild climates may be planted out to form the callus, 



204 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

and be ready to enter into growth with the opening- 
spring. In more northern climates they may be prepared 
for planting, and stored in moistened moss or damp earth, 
and kept from frost. The callus will be forming, and they 
will be ready to plant in early spring. Generally, cuttings 
should not be taken when the sap is in full now, as moist- 
ure is then rapidly evaporated and the cutting exhausted 
before roots are formed. They should be taken when the 
plant is dormant, or when a new shoot has been made 
with leaves so fully formed and matured as to be in the 
act of forming abundance of woody tissue. 

In selecting cuttings, they should come from healthy 
plants, from shoots of average strength, well nourished, 
but not over vigorous, as the latter are more quickly 
exhausted when deprived of their usual supply of nour- 
ishment. Horizontal branches growing near the ground, 
especially those which recline upon it, have a greater ten- 
dency to throw out roots. Upright shoots from near the 
summit are generally, but not always, less likely to suc- 
ceed. The willow and poplar strike freely from old wood, 
and trunks of considerable size, if planted, will emit roots, 
but of most trees the best plants are made from well- 
matured shoots of the current year's growth. In the case 
of hard -wooded plants that are hard to strike, it is a nice 
matter to select a portion of shoot in which the wood is 
neither too old and hard, from which roots will not be 
readily emitted, or too young and soft, as in this case they 
will damp off. Iiose cuttings strike most readily when 
not quite fully matured. The proper state of firmness dif- 
fers in different species. The age at which a cutting of 
any species will strike best or strike at all, is determined 
by experiment, but when once ascertained, it is invariably 
the same. The proper age of an untried species may be 
proximately determined from that of the most closely 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 205 

related species in which it is known, and will often prove 
to be right if the species are nearly allied. 

Some cuttings require little preparation. A willow 
may be sharpened and driven into the soil and will take 
root, and in some instances has done so, if planted bottom 
upwards. Currants and gooseberries, cut into suitable 
lengths, will emit roots not only from the callus, but from 
any part beneath the soil. Of these, as of cuttings of all 
deciduous trees, the buds on the part of the cutting be- 
neath the soil must be removed before planting, or they 
will push and become shoots. Cuttings of which the 
leaves have fully performed their office, and the wood is 
ripened early in the season, if made and planted out in 
warm, moist soil, will form roots before winter, and be 
ready to push into vigorous growth in spring. Such cut- 
tings, planted in August or early in September, are nearly 
a year in advance of spring-planted cuttings. 

Cuttings of plants, difficult to strike, may have a ring 
of bark taken out just beneath a joint, at midsummer, 
which will cause a swelling of the branch above the ring. 
The branch is cut off in autumn at the base of the swell- 
ing, the top shortened, and it is planted as a cutting, or 
it is buried in the soil for the swelling to soften, and 
planted early in the spring. With plants that are not 
very free to strike, it is from the joints only that roots can 
be expected to grow; hence, in making cuttings, the shoot 
is divided just below a joint, and it is considered best to 
choose a joint between the 3 T omig wood and that of the 
previous season. The cut should be quite smooth, for if 
the shoot be bruised, the returning sap will not be able to 
reach the wound in sufficient quantity to make it heal 
over and form the callus quickly, and the cutting will be 
likely to fail. When the callus is properly formed, there 
is little difficulty in striking cuttings. To form the callus 
they may be mixed with damp sphagnum moss, or old 



200 



GAKDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 



tan, and kept in a dark cellar until about to push roots. 
( Juttings may be placed loosely in a common preserving 
bottle, with a wet sponge, the water drained out, and 
the bottle stopped with a cork which has a half-inch hole 
in the top to admit air. This may be kept where the 
atmosphere ranges from temperate to summer heat, and 
the callus will form very quickly. 

Preparation. — The way to prepare cuttings for planting- 
is best shown by an illustration. Figure 82 A shows a 
cutting formed from a lateral 
shoot, and has been cut off 
from the main branch with a 
heel attached. Such cuttings 
are sometimes torn out and 
the bottom smoothed with a 
sharp knife, so as to present 
a larger surface for the ab- 
sorption of moisture. At B is 
a deciduous, woody cutting, 
as commonly prepared. At 
C is shown a mode 
in which grape cut- 
tings are sometimes 
prepared; the two 
extremities of the 
fragment of branch 
at the base are fur- 
nished with buds. This is a mode which greatly favors the 
emission of roots. Figure 83 is a cutting of a geranium 
ready for insertion in the soil. In this case the lower 
leaves have been removed; they should be clipped but 
very little farther from the base than where the cutting is 
to be inserted in the soil. The leaves being kept near the 
moist surface, do not evaporate as rapidly as when ele- 
vated much above. The petiole (or leaf stalk) should be 




r 



Fig. 82— Different Forms of Cuttings. 



PKOPAGATION OF PLANTS. 



207 



cut off as close to the stem as can be done without injury 
to the bark. If much of it is left and buried in the soil, it 
is apt to rot and produce decay in the cutting itself. If an 
old leaf or two is left, it will elaborate more sap for the 
formation of new roots than the very young ones. Cut- 
tings of succulent plants, like the cacti, geranium, etc., 

require to dry a little that 
the wound may heal over 
before inserting in the 
soil. 

The grape is often pro- 
pagated from a single 
eye — a mode now very 
much in use for new varie- 
ties. These cuttings, 
shaped in one of the forms 
shown in Figure 84, are 
planted in small pots un- 
der glass, the surface kept 
damp, and bottom heat ap- 
plied. They soon take, and 
form the best vines. 

The substances in which 
cuttings are struck are va- 
vious. Many plants, as 
chrysanthemums, currants, 
etc., will root in common garden soil. Powdered char- 
coal, brick dust, and even pure water are employed, but 
the most useful substance is pure silver sand, white, 
clean and fine. Sea sand must not be used, unless all 
saline matter is washed out. Sand contains little food 
for plants, and they need little until the roots are formed, 
but it is free from matters which induce decay. It is 
porous and gives ready passage for the young rootlets, 
and, being fine, retains moisture by capillary attraction. 




Fig. 83 — Geranium Cutting. 



208 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



Some plants will strike roots if the ends of the cuttings 
are kept in water of the proper temperature. Bottles, 
vials, and jars are used to hold the water, but as light is 
rather an obstacle to the ready formation of roots, if the 
vessel is transparent it should be shaded. As soon as the 
roots begin to appear, the cuttings should be taken from 
the water and planted in fine soil, which must be kept 

moist, and the plants 
carefully shaded until 
they take fresh root. 

Insertion. — Cuttings 
of hardy plants that 
strike readily in the 
open air are some- 
times inserted with a 
dibble, but it is better 
to cut off by a line a 
straight edge in the 
dug soil, and place 
the prepared cuttings 
against it, pressing 
the soil closely around 
them. These are usu- 
al ly set perpendicu- 
larly. If the cuttings 
are long, they can be 
set in a sloping direc- 
tion so as to be within reach of atmospheric influences. 
If not herbaceous, they should be inserted so deep that 
but two buds will be above the surface, and in the vine 
but one. Herbaceous cuttings are inserted less deeply. 

When small cuttings are planted under glass, a pointed 
stick of proper size is used. Many kinds may be planted 
all over the surface of the spot, but most do better when 
inserted near the sides or bottom of the pot, and take root 



Fig. 84 — Three Forms of Grape Cuttings. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 209 

more readily. The soil iii all cases about a cutting must 
be closely pressed against its extremity, or it will never 
strike root. 

Temperature. — Many cuttings that rarely strike root iu 
the open ground do so freely when moist bottom heat is 
applied. When the soil is but slightly warmer than the 
air, the roots grow iu proportion to the top, but if the 
soil is constant^' warmer, the disposition to produce roots 
will be greater than to produce tops. Iu striking cuttings 
the object is to produce roots, aud then loaves will follow; 
hence the temperature of the soil should be somewhat 
higher than that iu which the species naturally com- 
mences growth, iu order to secure good roots, without 
which there can be no vigorous leaf-buds. This stimulus 
should be applied to soft-wood plants almost imme- 
diately; others may require some delay until the callus is 
formed. Deciduous shrubs in a dormant state should at 
first be placed in a temperature very little higher than 
would excite and swell their buds on the parent tree. In- 
crease the bottom heat gradually, keeping the soil 
warmer than the atmosphere. From 50° to 60° is about 
right for the soil at this period, aud about 50° for the at- 
mosphere for hardy and greenhouse plants, increasing 
the bottom heat to 65° or 70 very gradually, when tlie 
roots commence growth. Care should be taken to pre- 
vent its falling lower until rooted, when it may gradually 
be lessened until but little above that of the air of the 
place in which they are growing. 

Moisture. — The cutting, while rooting, must be kept in 
a suitable state of moisture. In vine cuttings, and others, 
nearly covered with soil, all that is required is to keep 
them in such an equable state of moisture that they can 
have as much as they can appropriate, and no more. A 
cutting requires more moisture in the soil than a rooted 

plant. 

14 



210 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

To recapitulate: The principal points to be attended to 
in making cuttings are — to cut off the shoot at a joint, 
without harming the stem ; to select shoots with well 
matured buds; to fix the end which is to send out roots 
firmly in the soil; to keep up an equable degree of heat 
and moisture; to cut off part of the leaves and shade the 
whole, to prevent evaporation, without too much exclud- 
ing- light, of which a portion is needed to stimulate the 
cutting into growth; to keep the soil moist but not too 
damp. It is well to transplant them into small pots, sup- 
plied with water regularly and moderately as soon as they 
begin to grow. Cuttings of slow-growing plants are those 
most liable to fail. An excess of heat, cold air, water, and 
light are all injurious to tender cuttings. 

Pipings. — Cuttings of plants with tubular stems, like 
the pink, are called pipings. The upper part of a shoot, 
when nearly done growing, is pulled out of the socket 
close above a joint, leaving the part pulled out Avith a 
pipelike termination. These pipings usually have their 
leaves or kk grass " trimmed a little, and are struck in sand 
about an inch apart, with a bell-glass closely fixed over 
them. If well watered at first, they will not require it 
again for some time. They are planted about three-quar- 
ters of an inch deep, and treated like other herbaceous 
cuttings. Under a north wall they succeed finely. 

Boot Cuttings. — Many shrubs and plants are in this 
way most easily increased. Pyrus Japonica, blackberry, 
rose, apple, pear, quince, elm, mulberry, osage orange, 
, etc., if their roots are cut in pieces some three to nine 
inches long, and planted vertically with the end nearest 
the stem up, and covered slightly with earth, will soon 
form buds and throw up shoots. Many herbaceous plants, 
as sea-kale, horseradish, Japan anemone, etc., are thus 
increased. Of these the cutting's are made short, and, 
except the second named, planted horizontally. 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 211 

CHAPTER X. 

BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 

Budding is the art of making a bud unite to the stem 
or branch of another tree independently of its parent. It 
is a cutting with a single eye inserted in another tree 
called a stock, instead of in the ground. The operation 
may be performed at any time after the buds of the new 
wood are sufficiently matured. These must be perfectly 
developed, which is seldom the case until the shoot has 
temporarily ceased to lengthen, which is indicated by the 
perfect formation of the terminal bud. If the buds are 
desired very early, their maturity may be hastened by 
pinching the tops of the shoots. 

The ordinary time for budding, north of Virginia, is 
from the middle of July to the middle of September, and 
the buds in general remain dormant until spring. Roses 
are, however, budded earlier, and allowed to make some 
growth. In the South, buds are inserted at any time 
when the bark will rise, from June to October. Those 
put in early will make a tine growth before autumn in 
favorable seasons. A very necessary condition to success- 
ful budding is that the bark rise freely from the stock, and 
this must be in a thrifty, growing state, as when pushing 
into new growth a day or two after a fine rain. If the 
weather is too cold or the soil too dry, the bark will not 
rise. Such trees as make most of their growth early in the 
season must be budded before they cease to grow. Young- 
shoots, when the buds are in a proper state, are cut below 
the lowest plump bud. If to be budded immediately, all 
the leaf is cut off, except the leaf stem, which is left for 
convenience of inserting, and in order to attract the sap 
into the buds. If the buds are to be preserved any time, 



212 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



the whole leaf with half of the leaf stem is removed to 
prevent evaporation. If this is done as soon as they are 
cut, they may be preserved several days in a closely cov- 
ered tin box, or tightly corked preserve jar, if in a cool 
place, and indeed, if the wood is well ripened, though the 
footstalk of the leaf will drop, the bud will be in perfect 
condition some weeks. No water need be given if there 

are several cuttings 
in the box, as the 
air becomes suffi- 
ciently saturated 
with moisture from 
the cuttings them- 
selves. 

The strings used 
for tying are taken 
from bass mats, 
which should be 
wetted before use, 
until perfectly pli- 
able. Better strings 
are made of white 
woollen yarn, as 
they are more elas- 
tic, and the color re- 
flects the heat. The 
pruning and budding knives are the only implements 
required for the operation. The condition of the budding 
knife is of importance to success. It should be made thin, 
and the edge kept perfectly smooth and keen. The mode 
in which budding is performed is shown in Figure 85. 

Having the implements, stocks, and buds in the proper 
condition, take the shoot in the left hand, and the bud- 
ding knife in the right. Insert the edge of the knife in 
the shoot, half an inch above the bud to be taken off. 




Fig. 85— Budding. 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 2 13 

The. bud is taken off with a drawing cut, parallel with the 
shoot, removing the bark and the bud attached, with a 
slight portion of the wood beneath the bud, half an inch 
above, and three-fourths of an inch below. The English 
remove this slight portion of the wood, taking great care 
not to injure the root of the bud; but it does not succeed 
so well in this climate as if a small portion of wood be 
left directly under the bud. Select, then, a small portion 
of the stock, smooth and free from branches, and make 
two cuts through the bark, one across the end of the 
other in the shape of a T, as in the figure. Then raise 
the bark on the two edges of the perpendicular cut with 
the smooth ivory haft of the budding knife; insert the 
bud gently beneath the parts raised, not forcing it down 
like a wedge so as to rub off the cambium of the stock, 
but pressing very little against the stock until so fully 
inserted that its own cambium can be applied directly to 
that of the stock where it is to remain; cut off the top 
of the bark attached to the bud square, that it may fit the 
cut across the stock; then wind the bass pretty tightly 
about the stock, commencing below the end of the bud, 
and pass it closely around up to the bud. The shield 
should here be firmly pressed, that the base of the bud 
may closely rest upon the alburnum; bring the tie pretty 
close to the under side of the bud, making the next turn 
wider, so that the point of the bud and the leaf stalk may 
bo seen between the turns of the tie; continue binding 
closely until the cross incision is covered, then fasten with 
a knot. Cover every part of the incision, except the bud 
and leaf stalk attached, which should remain uncovered. 
Do not tie it so tightly as to cut into the bark, but so as 
to exert upon it a moderate pressure. The bud is put 
upon the north side of the stock, when practicable, and 
when not, a little paper cap may be tied to the stock, to 
project over the bud, so as to admit the light, but exclude 



214 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

the direct rays of the sun. The success of the operation 
depends on its being performed rapidly, and with fresh, 
healthy buds; clean, smooth cuts; the bark rising cleanly 
and freely from the wood; the exact fit of the bud to the 
incision; and close, secure tying, to exclude the air and 
water. If the operation is performed in moist weather, 
and the bark of the bud is joined closely to the wood of 
the stock, success is almost certain. If the stocks are in a 
proper state, the upper edges only of the slit need be 
raised with the haft, and the bud being gently pushed to 
its place, will raise the bark smoothly before it, and the 
insertion be more firm than if the bark had been entirely 
raised with the haft. It is an operation requiring much 
exactness, but may be done in one minute; the point 
where a beginner will most likely fail is in the proper re- 
moval of the bud. 

As soon as the bud has taken, the ligature may be 
loosened, and should be entirely removed when it begins 
to cut into the bark. If the leaf stalk, after a few days, 
drops off, it indicates the bud has taken; if it withers or 
adheres, the bud is likely to be dead or dying. The buds 
must be frequently examined, and the ties loosened, if 
becoming too tight, as they will in growing stocks. If it 
is desired to start the bud into immediate growth, soon 
after it has evidently taken, the stock may be shortened 
to within ten or twelve inches of the bud, and all shoots 
rubbed off as they appear, except that from the inserted 
bud. When this has grown three or four inches, the stock 
is cut off again near the budded shoot, and when this has 
grown some inches, the stock is cut off close to its base. 
When it is desired that the bud should remain dormant, 
cutting back the stock is delayed until just before the 
flow of sap starts in spring. P>uds that are not permitted 
to push until spring soon overtake the others in growth. 

Budding is the most rapid mode of increasing rare 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 215 

varieties, of which every bud is almost sure to make a 
good plant if the operation is quickly and skillfully per- 
formed. It is the easiest method of propagating apples, 
pears, and most other fruit trees. In the case of peaches 
it is almost universally applied, and also with those roses 
that will not succeed readily from cuttings. Budding and 
grafting can be performed only upon plants of the same, 
or nearly related, species. Thus a peach can be budded 
on a plum, as they are both stone fruits, and belong to the 
same natural group of plants, but no art could make the 
poach flourish on the apple or pear as a slock. 

Grafting. — This differs from budding in its being the 
transfer of a shoot, with several buds upon it, from one 
tree to another, instead of merely employing a single bud. 
It is performed by bringing portions of two gro wing- 
shoots together, so that the soft wood of the two may 
unite together. The shoot to be transferred is called the 
scion, and the tree which is to receive it is called the 
stock. The stocks are of all ages and sizes, but they must 
be sound and healthy. The scions employed are generally 
shoots of the preceding year's growth, which may be cut 
at any time after the leaves fall, and may be buried in a 
dry soil, with the upper extremities slightly projecting 
on tin 1 north of a wall. They must be protected from 
heavy rains, or the buds will start too early. Amateurs 
can best keep all the} 7 wish in a corked preserve jar, or 
a tin box, or closely covered bucket. Examine them occa- 
sionally, and if too much moisture is present, leave the 
cover off a few hours. The drier the better, if they do not 
begin to shrivel. Keep in a cool place. 

Scions of healthy, close-jointed wood should always be 
chosen. If they are to be sent to a distance, those of 
rather large size and close joints should be selected, 
enveloped in a little thin paper slightly dampened, and 
the whole covered tightly with oiled silk. In this way 



216 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

they will go a thousand miles in perfect safety. The butt 
and extremities of scions should both be rejected. The 
tools required are, a grafting knife, saw, and chisel; but, 
for whip grafting, the knife only is employed. Two kinds 
should be used, one to prune and pare the stock, and the 
other to prepare the graft. 

Grafting Wax. — A composition of very good quality 
is made of four parts rosin, two of beeswax, and one of 
tallow. Melt it altogether, turn it into cold water, and 
work and pull it thoroughly until it turns whitish; just 
as children do molasses candy. A wax for cold weather 
will work better with a little less rosin, and in warm with 
a little more. The stiffness of the wax is increased or 
diminished by employing less or more of tallow. In cold 
weather keep the composition in warm water, and in 
warm in cold water. In putting it on, the hands must be 
slightly greased, to keep it from sticking to them, but 
in operating grease the scion and stock as little as pos- 
sible. 

In applying the wax, be careful to cover the scion on 
the sides and the cleft in the stock, forming a cap over the 
top, and pressing it closely and tightly around the graft, 
so as to cover every crack, and carefully to exclude the 
air and water. More convenient than the wax itself, espe- 
cially for whip grafting, is cloth saturated in wax that 
has been made softer by using more tallow and beeswax 
and less rosin. Take any thin, half-worn calico or muslin, 
tear it into narrow strips, roll them loosely into small 
balls, and soak them in the hot composition until every 
pore is filled. When wished for use, it is unwound from 
the balls, and torn into smaller strips, of the proper 
length and breadth required by the size of the stock. 
These strips, wound two or three times around the stock 
^and graft, secures it perfectly. 

Modes and Time of Grafting. — The modes of graft- 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 



217 



ing most usually practiced are whip and cleft grafting, 
aud they are practiced on the stem and branches, or the 
roots of trees. Koot grafting can be performed at auy 
time iu this climate, or from the fall of the leaf uutil the 
buds begin to open. The peach, grafted in this way early 
iu the seasou, succeeds perfectly at the South, but gen- 
erally fails north of Virginia. Stone fruits of all kinds 
must be grafted earlier than apples, pears, etc., as their 
sap seems to lose all agglu- 
tinating properties after its 
first flow. 

Graft them just as the buds 
are about to swell, but for 
most other species the best 
time for grafting, except in 
the root, where the scion will 
be protected by the earth cov- 
ering it, is while the buds are 
swelling in the spring. If put 
in before that time the alter- 
nate freezing and thawing to 
which they are exposed often 
destroys the vitality of the 
graft. Apples, pears, etc., 
may be grafted until they 
blossom, if the scions are kept 

perfectly fresh, and have not started. Grafting succeeds 
perfectly well just before the second growth, early in 
August, if the sap is thrown into the graft, by rubbing off 
the other shoots as they appear; but it is just as well to 
wait until spring, there being no gain in the growth of 
the graft over those put in at the usual season. 

Whip ok Splice Grafting. — This mode is applicable 
to all small stocks, and succeeds best where the scion and 
stock are exactly the same size. Roth stock and scion 




Fig. 8G. Fig. 8/ 

Splice Grafting. 



218 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



are cut off with a sloping cut about an inch and a half 
long on each, so as to match precisely, if of the same size; 
or, if not, at least on one side. A tongue is then made on 
each by slitting the scion upward, and the stock down- 
ward. The tongue of each is fitted into the slit of the 
other, thus holding the scion firmly in its place. Bind it 
closely with the cloth covered with the composition. The 
engravings (Figures 86 and 87) show the different steps of 
the operation. It is the neatest, most expeditious, and 
most successful mode of grafting, where the stocks are of 

the proper size. 
Stocks, three- 
fourths of an inch 
in diameter, or 
even an inch, may 
be grafted in this 
way, but for inch 
stocks cleft graft- 
ing is preferable. 
Cleft Graft- 
in*; is the more 
common mode. It 
may be practiced 
on large or small 
stocks, but for the 
latter whip grafting only should be employed. The top 
of the stock is cut off carefully with a fine saw, and pared 
smoothly with a sharp knife. The stock is then split with 
the grafting tool, and held open with the chisel of the same 
(Figure 88). A common knife will answer for splitting, 
and the split may be kept open for insertion with a 
wooden wedge or a large nail of which the point has 
been ground down to a wedge shape. Sharpen the lower 
part of the scion into a smooth wedge, one and a half 
inches long, more or less, according to its size, and that of 




Fig. 89. 
Splice Grafting. 



Fig. 90. 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 



219 



the split in the stock. The exterior side of the scion when 
sharpened should be slightly thicker than the other, that 
it may be sure to make a close fit there (Figure 89). Let 
the scion have two or more buds, of which one should be 
on the wedge and inserted just below the top of the stock 
(Figure 90). This often grows when the others fail. The 
main point is that the iuside bark of the scion and that 
of the stock should exactly correspond, and 
meet at their edges at least in oue place. To 
effect this, it is usual to set the scion so that 
its upper extremity falls a little without the 
line made by the continuation of the stock 
on the side in which it is inserted. It is bet- 
ter, as in Figure 91, to set it a little within or 
towards the heart of the stock, and the base 
of the scion a little out, and when the scion 
and stock cross each other, a meeting of the 
edges will be certain, and even a novice will mM 
thus succeed. One or two scions are set in 
the stock according to its size; the wedge is 
then withdrawn, and the whole carefully cov- 
ered with the composition so as to exclude all 
air and moisture. 



Ml 



Root Grafting. — Both the whip and cleft 
modes are successfully applied in root graft- Root^rafting 
ing, but splice grafting is more generally in 
use. In root grafting fruit trees, the best stocks for the 
purpose are seedlings, which are cut off at the collar 
and grafts inserted in one or the other of these modes, 
according to the size of the stock. If such stocks cannot 
be got, roots of thrifty trees may be employed, but they 
are more apt to produce diseased trees. This work can 
be performed at any leisure time during the winter, and 
when the winters are mild and open, they should be set 



■ !0 



GARDENING i OB i BE BOUTH. 



<»"ii in the open ground ;ii once, and covered wit 1 1 soil 
aboul an inch above the point of junction. 

in colder latitudes they are packed closely in small 
boxes wiili sandy earth among the roots, and kepi in ;i 
cool cellar until they can be planted in spring, in pool 
grafting, either waxed cloth or twine 

is used lo hold the scions in place. 

In grafting, ;is in budding, always 
have sharp instruments; make the 
Ji| cuts clean and smooth; bring the inner 
hark thai is, the active young parts 

Of Stock and scion in close contact by 

a permanent pressure of the slock 
upon its scion; the top of the scion 
should be cni off nexi to a bud, and 
there should he a hud jusl beneath the 
shoulder where ii unites with the 
stock; every portion of the wound 
should be perfectly covered with the 
composition, and the stock and scion 
nnisi correspond, do1 only in their aa 
hire, hut iii their habits of growth. 
[narching, or Grafting by A.p 

Fig. 92 [narching or ,,,, . , , • , • , , 

., ... , . . ruoArii. — Ins mode is pracliced wilh 

( Iraftlng by Approach. ' 

Camellias and Magnolias. A branch is 
hen I and partly cul through, as in Figure 92, and the heel 
thus formed is slipped into n slii made downward in the 
slock to receive it; the p. iris are then made to meel as 
exactly as possible, and are hound with bass strings, as 
in Figure 93, and covered wilh grafting clay, or with the 
composition. In five or six months the union is complete, 
and the inarched planl may be separated from iis parent, 
which is done with a sharp Knife so as lo leave a (lean 
CUt. The head of the stock, If noi removed hofore, is Ihen 
cnl away, and the plant is ready for removal. 




BUDDING AND i.i:,\i i i G. 



221 



There are several other modes of budding ;i ml grafting, 
hut the above are most useful and commonly practiced. 

The advantages of these operations are the ra pidity with 
which ;i valuable kind may !>«• propagated which will nol 
grow from seed or miliums trees of worthless fruit may 
be changed into more valuable varieties) seedlings can 
be broughl into early bearing; foreign, 
tender fruits may be rendered bardier on 
hardy, native stocks; u kind of fruil may 
be grown in a soil nol congenial to it, us 
the pear by grafting on the quince; sev 
eral varieties of fruit may be grown upon 
the same tree; and, finally, l>v grafting 
on dwarf-growing stocks the trees may 
be so dwarfed as to afford many ripening 
in succession within the limits of a small 
garden. 

Experience shows thai the grafl and 
stock mutually influence each other. 

The effect of the stock ll|>on the grafl ill 

improving its produd is evident in such pears us sue 
ceed on the quince, their size and flavor being much 
Improved. The grafl in turn affects the stock, increasing 
or diminishing its vigor. The Newtown Pippin will 
roughen the barb of any other apple stock. A Collins 
pear, <j;iui'\<-<\ upon the branches of another variety, is 
verv likelv to cause the death of the whole tree. 




Fig 93 



222 HARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

CHAPTER XI. 

PRUNING AND TRAINING. 

Pruning. — This operation is generally performed more 
at random than any other in gardening, yet is one of the 
most important and most delicate. Not even a twig 
should be removed from a tree without some definite 
object. This work above all others requires care, knowl- 
edge, and judgment, and should never be left to ignorant 
operators. In their hands the results can hardly fail to be 
injurious, but performed by those who base their practice 
on the laws of vegetation, it contributes to ensure a regu- 
lar production of beautiful and perfect fruit, and still 
more to prolong the life and fruitfulness of trees. 

The benefits of skillful pruning, as stated by Du Breuil, 
are: 

1. It permits one to impose upon its subject a form 
corresponding with the place it is designed to occupy. 
Thus to standard fruit trees is given the pyramidal form, 
or that of the vase Trees thus managed produce larger 
and more abundant fruits than those left to grow at ran- 
dom, and occupy less space. Trees upon an espalier or 
wall, and vines upon a trellis, are made to develop their 
W T ood with sjanmetry and regularity, and occupy usefully 
the whole surface they were designed to cover. 

2. By pruning, all the main branches of the tree are 
furnished with fruit-bearing branches duly exposed to air 
and light in their whole extent. An unpruned peach tree 
will produce fruit only at the extremity of each branch, 
but by pruning, all parts of the tree are made fruitful. 

3. By pruning, fructification is made more equal. By 
suppressing each year the superabundant flower-buds, 



PRUNING AND TRAINING. 223 

and thinning the branches themselves, one preserves for 
the formation of new flower-buds for the following year 
the sap which would have been absorbed by the parts 
removed. 

4. Finally, pruning renders the fruit larger, and of 
better quality. A large part of those nourishing fluids 
which would have supplied the suppressed parts is 
turned to the benefit of the fruit on the remaining 
branches. 

Lindley adds that the time in which a fruit ripens may 
be changed by skillful pruning. If raspberry canes are 
cut down to three eyes in the spring, a late summer or 
autumn crop will be produced. By removing the flower- 
buds of remontant roses, fine autumn blooms are ob- 
tained. 

Time for Pruning. — Pruning is performed at two 
periods during the year. Winter pruning is that given to 
trees while vegetation is in repose, and summer pruning 
includes all that a tree or plant receives in its stages of 
active growth. 

Winter Pruning. — This may be performed at the 
South directly after the fall of the leaf, and in mild 
weather through the winter months, until vegetation is 
about to commence; at the North, from the time the 
severe frosts are over until the sap begins to move — that 
is, in February and March. If pruned before the heavy 
frosts, the cut, being exposed to their severity, does not 
heal readily and the terminal bud is often destroyed. 
Pruning must not be undertaken while the branches are 
frozen, as the wood cuts with great difficulty, and the 
wounds are torn and commonly heal badly, and the near- 
est bud generally perishes. If delayed until the shoots 
begin to start, all the sap from the roots that has been 
absorbed by the parts of the tree cut off is lost. A great 
many of the expanding leaf and flower-buds will be 



224 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

broken off, and finally the sap, in full flow, pours from 
the wounds and the tree is greatly weakened thereby. 

Pruned at the proper season, the tree throws all its 
force upon the remaining buds, developing those which 
would else be dormant. Where, however, a tree is too 
vigorous to fruit well, a late spring pruning, when the 
shoots begin to lengthen, will check its vigor and cause 
the formation of fruit buds. 

The vine, currant, and gooseberry may be pruned at 
any time between the suspension of growths and the first 
flow of sap. In general, it is best to prune plants in the 
order in which vegetation commences; first apricots, then 
peaches, just as their buds begin to swell, plums and 
cherries, then pears and apples. Stone fruits should be 
lightly pruned, as they are apt to be injured by the issue 
of gum from the wounds. 

Summer Pruning. — Shoots may be removed at any 
time, if the tree seems to be throwing its strength in a 
wrong direction. This is better accomplished by disbud- 
ding — that is, removing those buds which would produce 
unnecessary shoots, or pinching the extremities of those 
shoots which are making too much wood. 

Pinching, or removing the growing point with the 
linger and thumb, is the most essential operation in the 
summer management, both of fruit trees and ornamental 
plants. The tendency of the sap is to the growing points, 
and especially to those more elevated and exposed to the 
light. The upper buds, if the tree or plant is near to and 
shaded by others, are the only ones to develop, and, con- 
sequently, it shoots upward rapidly, while the stem is not 
proportionally developed, and few side branches are 
thrown out. Such a tree must not only be cut back 
severely at the winter pruning so as to shorten the leader 
to perhaps one-third of its growth, but it needs looking to 
in summer, or it will push upward as strongly as before. 



PBUNING AND TBAINLSTG. 225 

To strengthen its side branches, then, it is necessary to 
pinch in early, while they are in active growth, the leader 
or any other shoot that is evidently receiving' an undue 
amount of sap. This operation checks the How of sap to 
tlrht point, and directs it to where it is more needed. 
When a side shoot shows a disposition to outgrow the 
leader, the defect is remedied by pinching, with uo loss 
of wood or growth to the tree. Pyramidal forms can ouly 
be secured iu this way by summer piuchiug, keeping the 
lower limbs always the Longest. Iu the same way early 
bearing is promoted, for the check given to the growing 
point concentrates the sap, and, unless the shoots again 
start into growth, it is likely to form fruit buds. Bushy 
specimen plants iu the greenhouse aud flower garden are 
uot to be seen in plants left to themselves. The stems 
are soon naked, and, if cut back, they soon grow up as 
bad as before. If the leading and other dominant shoots 
are pinched back, leaving the side shoots unchecked until 
ripe, when they may be cut back a little to make them 
branch, they will be as healthy aud full of bloom as those 
at the upper part of the plant. Pinching should be per- 
formed at once as soon as a shoot shows itself out of pro- 
portion. Further directions as to the summer manage- 
ment of particular trees aud plants will be given here- 
after. 

Implements. — The implements required in pruning are 
the common pruning knife, a small saw with very fine 
teeth, a socket chisel two or three inches wide, with a 
long handle and a pair each of large pruning shears, 
pruning scissors, and pole pruning shears; these should 
divide the branch with a clean, smooth cut, and not bruise 
it on the side next the stem. 

Mope op Operating ppon the Branches. — They 
should be so cut that they will heal kindly. Tf it was 
desired to cut off a branch as at Figure 94, it is cut as near 

15 



226 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



to the bud as possible, without injury to it. The knife is 
entered directly opposite to the base of the bud, and 
comes out even with the point of the bud. In this way 
1he bud will not suffer, and the cut quickly heals. In 
Figure 95 the cut is so far above the bud that the shoot 
will die down to uear the bud, and require to be again 
cut off that it may heal over. If the cut is made, com- 
mencing too far below the bud, as at Figure 96, the bud 

is badly nourished and 
will be less vigorous, 
and perhaps perish. In 
cutting off a branch it 
should not be cut so 
close to the stem as to 
wound it, nor should the 
cut be larger than the 
base of the branch, or so 
long as to leave a snag 
to decay slowly for 
years, if indeed it does 
not send out new vig- 
orous shoots again re 
quiring removal. 

Considered mechani 




i i 



Fig. 94. 



Fig. 95. 



Fig. 96. 



Operating on Branches. 



cally, the great art is to make a clean, smooth cut, so as 
to leave the bark in a healthy state to cover the wound, 
and to prune so near a bud as to leave no dead wood. 
Hence, if the branch be removed with the saw, the cut 
must be smoothed over with the knife. In cutting off 
large branches, the wound should be covered with graft 
ing wax, or painted over with Mr. Downing's preparation 
of shellac dissolved in alcohol, in order to exclude the air. 
General Principles of Pruning.— The secret of 
pruning judiciously consists in, first, " Calculating intelli 
gently the proportion one ought to establish between the 



PRUNING AND TRAINING. 227 

branches with fruit and those with none, and which serve 
only to nourish the tree; second, in establishing an equili- 
brium among the parts of the tree, so that neither side 
nor its leader may grow out of proportion so as to weaken 
the other side or the base by drawing to itself all the sap." 

Pruning is most commonly intended either to Improve 
the form of the tree by directing the growth from one 
part to another; to renew the growth of stunted trees; 
to induce or diminish fruitfulnessj to remove diseased or 
decaying brunches; and in cases of transplanting, to 
proportion the head to the roots. 

In pruning to improve tlie form of the tree, whether fruit 
trees, or ornamental trees in pleasure grounds, the object 
is to preserve its natural shape, so that it may be an 
agreeable object on the lawn, or when combined with 
others in a group. Lawn trees should never have the 
stems trimmed up to bare poles, but the branches should 
proceed from near the ground, so that when covered with 
foliage they will nearly sweep the surface, and be one 
mass of green from the base to the top. So in all kinds 
of fruit trees, the branches should be allowed to proceed 
from the trunk about a foot and a half from the ground. 
Such trunks are screened from our burning sun, and are 
much more healthy and fruitful than those with naked 
stems five or six feet high. Every tree growing naturally 
has its trunk sheltered from the sun. If it grow in the 
open ground, this is accomplished by its own branches, 
while in the forest all the trunks are sheltered by the 
canopy of foliage above. If one part of the tree is dis- 
posed to outgrow another, and thus destroy the balance, 
it may be shortened in winter, and the shoots pinched off 
the next summer, until the sap is thrown in the right 
direction into weaker branches that were left entire, and 
the balance is restored. When it is desired that new 
shoots of a branch should take an upright direction, prune 



2i>8 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



to an inside hud. If you wish an open, .spreading top, prime 
to an outside hud of the branch. If the branches be cut 
at an inside bud, as at A (Figure 97), the growth from the 
upper buds will be as in Figure 98, but if the cut at an 
outside bud, B (Figure 97), the new branches will spread 
apart, as shown in Figure 99. To make a stem grow erect, 
in the annual cutting back which young trees require, 




Fig. 97. Fig. 98. Fig. 99. 

Pruning to Improve Form. 

select the bud intended for a leader on opposite sides 
each successive year, and the tree will grow upright. Se- 
lecting it two or three years on the same side will cause 
the trunk to incline in that direction. Symmetrical 
growth is not only agreable to the eye, but it assists in 
maintaining the equilibrium of vegetation, preventing 
the sap from being drawn more to one side than the other. 
Pruning to Reneav the Growth. — When a tree has 



PRUNING Ax\D TRAINING. 229 

stopped growing, remaining stationary, it often happens 
that if it is cut back in winter to a few buds, the whole 
force of the sap being made to act on these few buds, 
vigorous young shoots will be produced, and, these send- 
ing down new woody matter to the stem, new roots are 
formed, and the whole tree is renewed. In young trees 
where the growth has not been checked, an annual cut- 
ting back of the new growth is likewise necessary, and 
will strengthen the branches on the lower parts of the 
tree, and thicken up the trunk, enabling it to maintain an 
erect position. 

Pruning to Reduce ok Diminish Fruitfulness. — 
Everything that is favorable to rapid, vigorous growth, is 
generally unfavorable to the immediate production of 
fruit. Hence prunning, to induce fruitfulness, is per- 
formed after vegetation has commenced. If a tree be 
severely pruned immediately after its leaves have put 
forth, it is so checked as to be unable to make a vigorous 
growth the same season, the circulation of the sap is 
impeded, and the young shoots that would have made 
wood branches, had the growth been unchecked, will be- 
come fruit spurs. Pinching the extremities is, however, 
the usual mode of pruning to induce fruitfulness. The 
same result is produced by pruning the roots, which also 
lessens the dimensions tin 1 trees would otherwise obtain, 
by diminishing the quantity of food they receive from 
the soil. 

Pruning at Transplanting. — At this time all bruised 
and broken roots and branches should be removed with a 
sharp knife. When trees are taken from the ground, a 
greater or less portion of the roots is destroyed or injured, 
and the natural balance between the root and top is de- 
stroyed, and the tree in this condition will either die or 
make a slow growth. In England, the climate is so moist 
that trees mav be removed and leave nearlv all the 



230 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

branches as they were; but under the hot suns and strong- 
winds of an American climate, a vigorous shortening in is 
requisite. 

As horticultural theorists strongly insisted that pruning 
at transplanting was injurious, J. J. Thomas, Esq., author 
of the Fruit Culturist, has settled the question by direct 
experiment. Of six apricots, two years from the bud, 
about seven feet high, five were cut back and one left 
uncut at transplanting. The most vigorous of the five 
made 21 shoots, from 6 to 21 inches long. The weakest 
had 9 shoots 6 to 7 inches long, not counting the shoots 
less than 6 inches in length. The unpruned tree had on 
7 shoots, all less than 2 inches, and not one-twentieth 
part of the amount of foliage to be found on other trees. 
Experiments upon cherry trees, planted at the same time, 
equally showed the necessity of pruning at transplanting. 
Trees unpruned when transplanted are so checked that 
it requires years to restore them. In a southern climate 
they must be more severely cut back, when planted out, 
than in that of Macedon, New York, where the experi- 
ments were made. 

It matters very little how closely we prune the top of 
the trees; only have good roots, and a single season's 
growth will restore the balance. Do not leave more than 
one or two buds to a branch of the previous year's growth 
if the tree is of much size at the time of transplanting. 
Coniferous trees, as the pines, firs, etc., are exceptions, for 
if cut back at planting, the leader being lost, the form of 
the tree is difficult to restore. Hence those only of this 
class should be planted which have been taken up and 
reset annually in the nursery until a mass of fibrous 
roots has been formed. These must be protected from the 
air until the tree is reset. Broad-leaved evergreens, like 
English laurels, evergreen oaks, may be cut back and a 
portion of the leaves removed to lessen evaporation, with 



PRUNING AND TRAINING. 231 

the same advantage as deciduous trees. Indeed, many of 
the broad-leaved evergreens, taken from the woods, can- 
not be transplanted with any success, unless nearly all 
the top is removed. Nursery-raised trees are taken up 
and reset so often that they can be replanted safely with- 
out cutting in so severely. 

M. Du Breuil, from whose work we have already drawn, 
bases the whole theory of pruning fruit trees upon the 
following six general principles, which, in giving, we con- 
dense: 

I. — The vigor of a tree subjected to print hit/ depends in a 
great measure on the equal distribution of sup in all its 
branches. That this equal distribution may take place — 

1. Prune the branches of the most vigorous parts very short, 
and those of the weak parts long. The feeble parts being- 
pruned long, present a great number of buds and a large 
surface of leaves, which attract the sap, and produce 
vigorous growth; while the vigorous parts being primed 
short and the surface of leaves diminished, growth in 
those parts is also diminished. 

2. Leave a large quantity of fruit em the strong part and 
remove the whole or the greater part from the feeble. The sap 
which arrives in the strong part will be appropriated by 
the fruit, and the wood there will make little growth, 
while the feeble parts being deprived of fruit, the sap 
will be appropriated by the growing parts and they will 
increase in size and strength. 

3. Bend the strong parts and keep the weak erect. The 
more erect the branches are, the greater will be the flow 
of sap and consequent growth; hence, the balance may 
be restored by bending down those disposed to make too 
much growth. 

4. Remove from the vigorous parts the superfluous shoots 
as early in the season as possible, and from the feeble parts as 
late as possible. The fewer the young shoots are in num- 



232 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

ber, the fewer the leaves, and the less the sap is attracted 
there; but leaving these standing on the feeble parts, 
those leaves attract the sap and induce vigorous growth. 

5. Pinch curly the soft extremities of the shoots on the 
rigorous purts, and us late us possible on the feeble purls, 
excepting always any shoots which muy be loo vigorous for 
their position. By this practice the flow of sap to that 
point is checked and turned to the growing points that 
have not been pinched. 

6. In t ruining, luy in the strong slioots on the trellis curly 
and leave the feeble purts loose as long as possible. Laying 
in the strong shoots obstructs in them the circulation, 
and favors the weak parts which are at liberty. Giving 
also the feeble parts the benefit of the light in training, 
and confining the strong parts more in the shade, restores 
a balance. 

II. — The sup acts with greater force and produces more 
rigorous growth on a brunch short pruned than on one long 
pruned. The whole sap of the branch acting on two buds 
must produce greater development of wood on them than 
if divided among fifteen or twenty. Hence, to produce 
wood branches, we prune short, or if fruit branches, we 
prune long, because slender and feeble shoots are more 
disposed to fruit. Hence, also, trees that are enfeebled 
by over-bearing should for a year or two be pruned short, 
until the balance is restored. 

III. — The sup tending always to the extremities of the shoots 
causes the terminal bud to push with greater vigor than the 
lute ruts. When we wish a prolongation of a stem, we 
should prune to a vigorous wood bud, and leave no pro- 
duction that can interfere with the action of the sap on it. 

IV. — The more the sup is obstructed in its circulation, the 
more likely it will be to produce fruit buds. Sap, circulating 
slowly, is subjected to a more complete elaboration in the 
tissues of the tree, and becomes better adapted to form 



PRUNING AND TRAINING. 233 

fruit buds. If we wish a branch to bear fruit, we can 
obstruct the circulation of the sup by bending or making 
incisions around the branch, or if it is wished to change 
a fruit into a wood-branch, raise it into a vertical posi- 
tion and prune it to two or three buds, on which we con- 
centrate the action of the sap and induce them to grow 
vigorously. 

Y. — The leaves st rve to prepare the sap absorbed by the roots 
for the nourishment of the tree, <tn<l aid in the formation of 
buds on the shoots. All trees, therefore, deprived of their 
leaves, are liable to perish. Hence, the leaves should 
never bo removed from a tree under the pretext of aiding 
the growth, or ripening the fruit, as, deprived of leaves, 
trees cannot grow, neither can their fruit mature. 

VI, — When the buds of any shoot or branch do u<tl develop 
before the age of tiro years they can tie forced into activity only 
by a very close pruning, <tn<l in some cases, as the patch, even 
this will fail. Hence, the main branches should be trim- 
med so as to secure a development of their successive sec- 
tions, and so shortened in as not to allow the production 
of long, naked stems, leaving the interior of the tree bare 
of shoots, ami consequently unproductive. 

In order to induce trees to grow in any particular form, 
it is not so much labor as continued attention that is 
required. A thorough pruning once a year will not pro- 
duce the desired effect, but a little attention two or three 
times a week during the growing season will be sufficient 
to examine every shoot in an acre of garden trees, and the 
eye is very soon trained so as to detect at a glance the 
shoots that require attention. (Du BrcniJ, Lindley, 
Barry, etc) 

Training. — The principal objects of training are to 
render plants more productive of fruits and flowers than 
if left to grow voluntarily, also to form screens of various 
running plants to keep any unsightly object from view. 



234 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

The points to be attended to are to entirely cover the 
wall or trellis, bending the branches backwards and for- 
wards so as to form numerous deposits of returning sap, 
and ensure the full exposure of the fruit-bearing branches 
to the sun and air. The long shoots are shortened or 
pinched to make them throw outside branches, with 
which the trellis is covered, without permitting them to 
cross each other. Training flowering plants is necessary 
that they may appear in elegant and symmetrical form. 
It should be regulated by a knowledge of their habits of 
growth and consists principally in checking over-luxu- 
riance of growth and tying them to stakes or frames. 
Directions for training the grape, etc., will be given here- 
after. 



TRANSPLANTING. 235 

CHAPTER XII. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

Iii the operation of transplanting, the niaiii points to be 
regarded are the proper preparation of the soil for re- 
ceiving the plant; care in taking it up so as to avoid 
injury to the small, fibrous roots; setting it firmly so that 
its roots may take a secure hold of the soil; planting with 
as little delay as possible; and, lastly, maintaining the 
balance as far as practicable between the top of the plant 
and its roots, so that the former may not lose more by 
evaporation than the roots absorb, until again estab- 
lished. 

Preparation op the Soil. — Plants, when removed, 
need a freshly dug soil which affords a moist situation in 
which the delicate fibers may be emitted, and therein 
quickly establish themselves. If also well drained and 
trenched, the effect upon present and subsequent growth 
is very decided: a tree or vine thriving much better in 
such a situation than if the roots are put into a hole with 
none of the surrounding soil loosened. The soil ought 
also to be enriched with fine manure, but no coarse, unfer- 
mented manures should be applied where they will come 
in contact with the roots. When the ground is in a suit- 
able condition, holes should be dug for the reception of 
the roots of the plants. These had better be made square 
than round, as a large hole in that form can be sooner 
made. The diameter should be such that it will receive 
all the roots when fully extended. The holes should be 
made too large rather than too small. In digging the 
holes, throw out the best soil on one side and the poor 
on the opposite. If the ground has been prepared deeply, 
the holes may be made just deep enough to receive the 



230 GARDEXIXG FOE THE SOUTH. 

roots, which, in some eases, are spindle-shaped and extend 
downwards to a considerable depth, and in others run 
along- the surface. For most plants the hole should be 
deeper at the sides than at the center, leaving the bottom 
convex and not basin-shaped. It should have the bottom 
soil loosened, and in dry weather be watered, but the 
water should be allowed to subside so as to be moist, not 
wet, at the time of planting. It should be left of such 
depth in all good soils, that the neck of the plant may 
be as near the surface as before, or but a trifle above; 
but in clayey soils, ill drained, let it be somewhat above 
on a broad, slightly elevated mound. 

Taking up the Plants. — In this operation avoid Injury 
to the roots; with the utmost care they will be mutilated. 
A little attention will save a year's growth to a tree. The 
roots are of two kinds, the main roots which support the 
plant in the earth, and the small branching or fibrous 
roots, the fresh tips and numerous fibrils or root hairs of 
which supply it with nourishment. These parts are of 
great delicacy, and if injured or broken off, the' plaut 
must throw out others, or perish for want of nourishment. 
These fibrous roots are the ones most likely to be de- 
stroyed or injured in taking up, and in replanting to be 
squeezed between stones and hard lumps of earth, so that 
the circulation is weakly and imperfectly carried on 
through diseased and defective organs. The roots of a 
tree, therefore, when transplanted, must be examined, 
and all those injured and all the small fibrous extremities 
in bad condition should be cut back with a sharp knife 
to the sound parts before it is reset, in order to force the 
root to throw out new fibers, which, in many plants, are 
produced in great abundance from where a root has been 
cut back with a clean cut. Hoots, matted with fibers, 
should be disentangled and soil introduced among them 
in planting, so as to separate them from each other. 



TRANSPLANTING. 23li 

While the plant is out of the ground, its roots should 
be protected from exposure to the air, and, if not planted 
immediately, should be covered with earth. Many trees 
are ruined by lying out exposed to the sun for hours while 
holes are being dug to receive them. Before the tree is 
reset, the top also should receive the necessary pruning. 

REPLANTING. — Alter the holes are ready and the tree 
prepared, its roots should be laid upon the convex surface 
to see if the hole is of the proper depth, which may be 
judged by the eye, or more exactly by laying a rod across 
the hole close to the stem, resting on the level ground on 
each side. If the neck of the plant is too high or too 
low, make the necessary alteration, bringing the bottom 
to the proper height, and convex as before. Hold the tree 
lightly — if it is in the same aspect as before, in respect 
to the points of the compass, it certainly can do it no 
harm, and many cultivators think it important. Let the 
roots be nicely spread over this convex surface, training 
out the leading roots at distances as near equal as pos- 
sible, not bundling the small roots together, but sepa- 
rating them with particles of fine soil. Then, holding the 
stem firmly and erect, save a slight inclination towards 
the side from which the heaviest gales or most constant 
winds are expected, throw the finest, lightest soil, from 
that reserved by itself, down near the stem, letting it fall 
down towards the extremities of the roots, and introduce 
it carefully with the hand among the roots. Having thus 
covered the lower roots, those above should also be ad- 
justed and covered with the same care, and when all are 
well covered, water may be given with advantage, unless 
the soil and weather are moist. If not watered, when the 
roots are well covered, the earth should be moderately 
pressed upon them by treading the soil (being careful not 
to injure them), if the ground is light and friable, but 
by no means if wet. After watering or treading, the re- 



238 GAKDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 

rnaining soil should be put on, leaving the collar of the 
plant covered a very little deeper than before (in the case 
of trees some two inches), and the looser and drier this 
surface soil is the better will it resist drought. If the 
body of the tree is held firm by tying it to a stake, it will 
prevent the loosening of the roots by the action of the 
wind upon the tops. 

Checking undue Evaporation until the Plant is 
Established. — The maintaining the balance between 
the top and root of the plant is best secured by perform- 
ing the whole operation at the proper season, in mild, 
moist weather, and with as much dispatch as possible, 
meanwhile protecting the roots from the air and sun; by 
pruning severely the tops of plants that admit the opera- 
tion, thus lessening the evaporating surface; and by 
guarding with the greater care from injury the roots of 
conifers and other plants that do not. Removing a large 
portion of the leaves will likewise diminish the evapo- 
rating surface, and is very necessary in planting hollies 
and evergreen oaks. Shade from the sun those plants 
that require such protection (and nearly all are thus 
benefited), and water to supply the absorbing extremities 
of the roots with an abundance of food, that the increased 
quantity imbibed by each may, in some degree, make up 
for their diminished number. Mulching the surface thinly 
after a rain is also useful in preventing undue loss of 
moisture from the soil. 

Preparation of Trees for Transplanting. — As a 
rule, there is little gained by planting out large trees. 
Small trees, as Downing remarks, can be taken up with a 
system of roots and branches entire, while the older and 
larger tree, losing a part of its roots, requires years to 
resume its former vigor. Trees, transplanted while small, 
will prove more healthy, vigorous, and enduring; but 
sometimes, for immediate effect, or to preserve a favorite 



TRANSPLANTING. 239 

tree, it is necessary to transplant it when of larger size. 
This is done by shortening in the leading roots at a dis- 
tance from the trunk, varying with the size of the tree 
to be operated upon. A circular trench is dug in spring 
or before midsummer around the whole mass of roots, 
partially undermining them and cutting off all that ex- 
tend into the trench, which is dug at such a distance from 
the tree that it encloses a sufficient ball of roots; the 
trench may be tilled with poor earth, or covered with 
plank. The tree will be checked somewhat, and will fill 
the ball around it with a mass of fibrous roots, and in the 
proper season can be moved with safety. Many trees 
naturally tap-rooted, and evergreens difficult to trans- 
plant, are, by being transplanted annually or biennially 
from their seedling state, compelled to throw out a mass 
of fibrous roots, retaining among them a ball of earth, 
and are thus ready to be moved at any time without 
danger. 

It is often desirable to plant fruit trees before the 
leaves naturally fall, in seasons when autumn frosts are 
unusually late. A week or two before the trees are to be 
taken up, pluck from them every leaf, and allow them to 
remain and ripen their wood. After this time they can 
be taken up, packed, and sent safely long' distances with- 
out shrivelling. Meanwhile the ground should be pre- 
pared, the holes made, and, after pruning, plant them out, , 
giving them a good watering before the last soil is thrown 
in. Iu this waj T , where much planting is to be done, a 
month's time in autumn is gained. 

Transplanting Herbaceous Plants. — Most of these 
are easily transplanted as soon as they have done flower- 
ing, or before they begin to grow in the spring. For 
annuals, when the season is somewhat advanced, a damp, 
cloudy day, just before or just after a shower, or in the 
evening, is the proper time for the operation. Imme- 



2-4U GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

diately after a very heavy rain is not the best season, as 
the soil, if moved while too wet, forms a crust about the 
plant. In the case of choice young plants, they should 
be taken up with a trowel, removing them with a ball 
of earth, and the plant will hardly be checked in its 
growth. Larger plants may be taken up in the same way 
with the transplanter or spade. Those not removed with 
a ball, may be grouted by mixing up a quantity of rich 
loam in water to a semi-fluid state, and inserting the roots 
therein. Plants that suffer little in taking up, like the 
cabbage, may have a hole made in the earth with a dibble 
and the plant inserted therein, when the dibble is again 
inserted a little obliquely near the stem, and the earth 
pushed ii]) close to the root. All tap-rooted plants are 
moved with difficulty. Many herbaceous plants — sweet- 
potato slips, for instance — can be safely set out in dry 
weather in freshly moved soil, by making a hole for their 
reception, setting the plants therein, and just covering 
the roots with fine soil; then fill the hole with water about 
the roots and cover them at the surface with dry soil, to 
retain the moisture and keep the surface from baking. 
The operation must be performed in the evening. 

All valuable herbaceous plants should be protected 
with sun shades or plant protectors, when just planted, if 
the sun comes out hot. 



MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 241 

CHAPTER XIII. 

MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 

Mulching. — Mulching is placing litter of various 
kinds, as leaves, pine straw, or strawy manure, upon the 
surface soil over the roots of plants and shrubs. If leaves 
are used, a little earth may be required to keep them in 
place. Mulching is used as well to prevent moisture from 
evaporating from the soil in summer, as to prevent frost 
from penetrating to the roots in winter. In summer a 
mulch is usually applied to trees and shrubs newly trans- 
planted, and to herbaceous plants that arc impatient of 
heat about the roots. Irish potatoes, mulched, produce 
more abundantly, and are of better quality. Strawber- 
ries, thinly mulched, with the crown uncovered, are much 
more productive and continue longer in fruit. Rhubarb 
and other plants, requiring a cool soil, can thus be more 
easily raised; and so with many other crops. Summer 
mulching should be applied directly after a rain, that the 
moisture in the soil may be retained. It should not be 
applied to potatoes or other tender plants until the dan- 
ger of frost is over, as the increased evaporation from 
damp mulch will produce a white frost when there is 
none or little elsewhere formed. Fruit trees, by having 
their roots mulched, are kept in better health and vigor. 
Mulching not only wards off drought, but, in this way, by 
keeping the ground moist, and by the decay of the mulch- 
ing substance, a good deal of food is conveyed to the 
plants. Some authors are of the opinion that ground will 
become continually richer by being shaded. Rut the 
great benefit of mulching is that a steady permanency of 
moisture is retained, in spite of adverse circumstances, 
and without stagnation. In general, the coat of litter 
16 



24-2 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 

for mulching must be thin, that the rain may not be pre- 
vented from reaching the roots of plants. 

Many plants, nearly hardy, can be kept through the 
winter safely b}- a coat of dry litter over the roots, and 
especially the crown of the plant, to turn off a portion of 
the rain and to keep frost from penetrating to their roots. 
Verbenas, which would perish without this protection, 
are often kept over safely under a cover of two or three 
inches of leaves. So of other plants, where the object is 
to protect the root and crown, but not the foliage. Mulch- 
ing has the disadvantage of being untidy in appearance, 
and of affording shelter to insects and mice, and damage 
also may occur from its being carelessly set on fire from 
a cigar, or in cleaning up the garden, thus destroying the 
plants it was intended to protect. 

Shading. — In all glass structures during the warmer 
portion of the year, some provision must be made for 
shading. This may be done by thin sheeting, but as this 
is expensive from its rapid decay, it is usual to whitewash 
the glass externally as often as may be necessary. The 
autumn rains will soon wash it off when the season comes 
in which more light and heat are desirable. The lime of 
the whitewash, however, soon loosens the putty, so that 
a preparation of thin flour sizing, thickened with a little 
pipe clay, will be found better, though not as easy to 
remove. Where a glass is not needed, as for keeping 
camellias, and other plants, in pots through the summer, 
a sort of lattice, made by nailing laths upon a light, ob- 
long frame made for the purpose will be found useful. 
Laths can also be tied together with coarse twine, being 
separated by one or more knots, as greater or less dis- 
tance is desired. Mats and old salt and coffee sacks are 
often used, but they exclude too much light, and are best 
employed to prevent radiation, and thus keep out frost in 
winter. 



MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 243 

Water is beneficial to plants as a vehicle for conveying 
all soluble matters which form the food of plants, 
w T hether they be animal, vegetable, gaseous, or earthy. 

Other elements being present in sufficient quantity, the 
growth and health of a plant will be more or less satisfac- 
tory in proportion as it is or is not supplied with all the 
water it can consume. The action of water is not, how- 
ever, always beneficial. Injudiciously applied, it destroys 
more plants than almost any other item of mismanage- 
ment. In excess, it is always injurious. It fills the spaces 
in the soil which would otherwise be filled with air, and 
plants are choked and perish for want of this indispen- 
sable element. A superabundance of water, for a time, 
increases the growth of foliage and renders it tender and 
succulent; hence a good supply thereof is needful to 
plants, the leaves of which are eaten, as lettuce and 
spinach. 

But by this excess the production of flowers and fruits 
is delayed. The odor of the former and the flavor of the 
latter are weakened and impaired. The size of the fruit 
is increased by abundance of water, and without it the 
strawberry, for instance, will not swell; but the increased 
size, unless it ripens in a bright atmosphere, or the quan- 
tity of water is diminished as the fruit ripens, is partly 
at the expense of flavor. Fruit is not only impaired in 
quality, but is very liable to crack or burst from excess 
of moisture, as the plum, grape, or stanwix nectarine 
often do, or rot upon the tree while still immature, as the 
peach, plum, etc. 

An excess of water softens the tissues of plants, and 
renders them much more liable to injury by frost. A frost 
directly after warm and abundant rains, when plants are 
full of sap, is much more fatal than the same temperature 
in dry weather. 

The temperature of the soil, if wet, is greatly lowered, 



244 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

and its capacity for heat diminishes. The constant evapo- 
ration from wet soil so lowers the temperature of the 
adjacent stratum of air, that frosts occur when there are 
none on dryer soils. The constant dampness of the atmos- 
phere, produced by excess of water in the soil, diminishes 
evaporation from the leaves of plants, and hence renders 
the process of assimilation slower, and less food is taken 
up by the roots. By diminishing the absorption of car- 
bonic acid, it lessens the atmospheric supply of food. It 
creates a tendency in the organs of plants to vary from 
the normal type of growth, changing the flowers, for in- 
stance, into green leaves and ill-formed shoots. 

Succulent plants, those with fleshy roots, and those 
with leaves that appear dry, and transpire but little, and 
in which vegetation proceeds slowly, are most subject 
to injury from excess of water. Plants growing in a clear 
light are less endangered by an over supply than if grow- 
ing in a shaded situation, as they can both assimilate and 
perspire more. Plants in pots are most likely to be in- 
jured by injudicious watering, at times being drenched 
with too much, and at others allowed to become too dry. 

Where water exists in excess, it must be removed by 
drainage. This is indispensable in pot culture. It is par- 
ticularly to be attended to in the case of plants which are 
to be kept through the winter in green-houses or pits. 

The quantity of water that plants require varies with 
the species of plant and with its condition, whether in a 
state of growth or repose. A plant cultivated for its 
leaves requires more water than if grown for its flowers, 
and still less is needed if grown for its seeds or fruit. In 
proportion, also, as the roots of plants extend into the 
earth, the less water at the surface is required. Tap- 
rooted plants, like cotton, when once established, are not 
apt to suffer from drought; but those with roots at the 
surface only need frequent watering. Perennial plants, 



MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 245 

also, iu general require less the artificial application of 
water than annuals. The growth of the former is merely 
suspended by dry weather for the time being, to be re- 
sumed when moisture is supplied; but if water and the 
food of which it is the vehicle be withheld from annual 
plants, the double tax imposed upon them by nature of 
forming both roots and shoots at the same time, can no 
longer be met. Growth being suspended, the plant at- 
tempts to flower and ripen seed, and thus, while imper- 
fectly developed, it roaches the limit of its existence and 
dies. 

Plants with fleshy or fibrous roots are impatient of 
abundant waterings, yet do not well resist drought. 
Bulbous and tuberous rooted plants, and those with fleshy 
leaves, can support drought a long time and do well with 
rare but. abundant Tvaterings. (Terminating seeds and 
young plants should be watered lightly but frequently. 
In a state of free growth, water abundantly; while ripen- 
ing fruit, water rarely ; when transplanting, water freely. 

The lighter the soil, the more frequent and copious 
must be the supply of water. When the temperature in 
summer becomes elevated and the days are clear and the 
atmosphere dry, and evaporation increases, while rains 
become less frequent, water must be given more co- 
piously; for at such times mere sprinklings bake the soil 
and do more harm than good. 

When at rest, as iu the winter of temperate climates 
and in the dry season of the tropics, very little moisture 
in the earth is required by perennials, except marsh 
plants. Bulbs in a state of rest will endure almost any 
amount of dryness, and may even be exposed to excessive 
heat, somewhat resembling, in this respect, a ripened 
seed. Bulbs that have been kept dry for some time, when 
again to be started into grow T th, should receive but little 
water at first. If much is given, it will be absorbed with- 



246 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

out being digested, and, stagnating within, will destroy 
the bulb. Hence, we plant bulbs in a light soil and on 
raised beds, that the superabundant moisture may not 
destroy the roots. 

But a moderate degree of water is needed when vege- 
tation commences in the spring, for the earth is usually 
sufficiently moist; but when they have started into 
growth, plants should be abundantly supplied, and the 
quantity gradually diminished as the organization be- 
comes complete. As autumn approaches, evaporation 
becomes less, and the supply of water should be dimin- 
ished, both in the quantity and frequency of application. 
Withholding water gradually from plants that are to be 
kept through the winter will cause them to ripen their 
shoots, and they will be more likely to survive the cold 
season. 

No plant, at any time, should receive more moisture 
than it can consume either by assimilation, or rejection in 
the form of perspiration. Plants with large, broad leaves, 
like tobacco, squashes, etc., expose more surface to the 
light and sun, perspire freely, and hence need more water 
than those with small, pinnate leaves, like the acacia, or 
than succulent, or fleshy plants, a class that requires but 
little water at any time, and is very impatient of an ex- 
cessive supply, especially in winter. 

Watering artificially is resorted to in order to maintain 
a proper degree of humidity in the soil. This is indispen- 
sable in hot-houses, etc., and with all plants in pots. With 
these the protection of the glass assists in keeping the air 
about the plants in a state of humidity. 

But in open air culture, artificial watering can never be 
so beneficial as natural rain, and is often, indeed, a real 
disadvantage to plants. 

Artificial watering, with all its disadvantages, must, 
to a considerable extent, be resorted to in hot climates, 



MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 247 

or the results of gardening will often be quite unsatis- 
factory. In giving it, the conditions of beneficial, natural 
watering should, as far as possible, be observed. The 
rains that are most refreshing to plants are those of mild 
temperature and which distil gently, bringing to the roots 
of plants not moisture only, but ammonia and carbonic 
acid. If rain did not bring with it fertilizing matters, it 
would in time wash out all the fertility of the soil and 
leave it sterile. This is the effect of heavy, beating 
storms, which carry away more of fertility thau they 
bring; while if the soil be stiff they puddle the surface, 
rendering it, when dry, impervious, preventing the access 
of atmospheric air and the moisture of the dew and of any 
gentle rains that follow. 

Hence, in applying water, it should not be thrown upon 
the soil with force from a coarsely perforated watering- 
pot, as its effects would be injurious in precisely the same 
way as a washing rain. To tender plants and germinating 
seeds it should be applied through a very fine rose. The 
rose to a garden watering pot should not permit a com- 
mon pin to enter its perforations. For delicate seedlings 
in pots it is better to give water by sprinkling gently from 
a. wetted brush, both the plants and the soil. For larger 
plants in pots or in the ground, the leaves may be 
sprinkled, unless too succulent, but the main supply of 
water should be given by pouring it gently upon the sides 
of the pot or upon the surface of the earth, and let it flow 
gradually over and sink into the soil. 

It is not best, in general, to water close by the steins of 
plants. The roots take up food only at their extremities, 
and generally extend as far as the branches. Roth the 
roots and leaves of plants require water, and receive 
it in natural watering. But the rains that fall upon a 
tree do not fall upon its trunk, but roll off all around it, 
and drop precisely where the extending roots are ready 



248 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

to take it up. Watering directly at the base of a plant, 
close to its stem and collar, will be likely to rot or injure 
that vital part, and small, delicate plants are pretty sure 
to damp off. Thus applied, much of the water never 
reaches the absorbing extremities of the root. As a plant 
increases in size, the farther from the stem should the 
water be applied. 

Vines trained to verandas, or growing up under the 
eaves of dwellings, often suffer from the want of water 
applied to the foliage. Trained against the walls, evapo- 
ration goes on very rapidly from the heat reflected upon 
them, and but very little rain falls upon the foliage. 
They also become covered with dust and their pores 
choked therewith. When the sun shines warm and 
brightly, plants should be watered only about the roots, 
for if applied to the foliage, the drops remaining thereon 
act as so many burning glasses, and scorch the leaves, 
covering them with brown spots wherever the water rests. 
But in the spring, when the earth is moist, if the air is 
dry, and indeed at all times when the atmosphere is dry, 
and particularly when plants become covered with dust, 
they will be greatly refreshed 03^ syringing or sprinkling 
the foliage in the evening or morning, if their leaves are 
not susceptible of change by humidity. 

Plants in pots should be watered frequently and little 
at a time. • If the ball has become dry, do not deluge it 
at once, as it will flow directly through the pot or out at 
the sides, carrying with it the richness of the soil, while 
the ball still remains dry. Give it a little water, and when 
that soaks up, give, a few minutes after, a little more, 
until the entire ball is in a suitable state of humidity. The 
drainage must be good, or if much water is given to plants 
in pots, the soil will become heavy, water-logged, and 
impervious to the atmosphere. 

The best water to use is rain water, caught in open 



MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 249 

cisterns, as it is well aerated and abounds in ammonia 
and fertilizing gases. If spring or well water must be 
used, add a very little guano, say a pound or two to 
twenty gallons of water, giving the smaller quantity to 
delicate plants, and the larger to gross feeders, and before 
using let it stand a few hours. Manure from the hen roosl 
in double quantity may be substituted for guano. For 
sprinkling the foliage, pure water is better. 

The temperature of water, too, must be regarded. The 
good effects of bottom heat in hot-beds, or of artificial 
heat in greenhouses, are often entirely counteracted, and 
plant growth brought to a stand by watering with cold 
water. It is not only the lowering of the temperature of 
the roots of plants, but the suddenness of the change that 
is injurious ami often fatal. Water should always be 
applied a few degrees warmer than the soil, that growth 
may be promoted and not checked. 

As to the time of day at which water should be given, 
unless applied quite freely, it does little good in the heat 
of a summer's day, as the hot atmosphere drinks up the 
moisture before the plant can imbibe it. The effect of 
rain can be best secured by watering just at night, when 
the falling dew will, in some measure, prevent evapora- 
tion from the plants, and they will be fully refreshed 
during the night, lint in the spring of the year, to water 
in the evening in dry weather darkens the soil, and, there- 
fore, increases radiation. Evaporation is also greatly in- 
creased; the temperature sinks rapidly, the plants are 
chilled, if not frozen, and make less growth than if not 
watered at all. So, also, in autumn, for the same reason. 
In both spring and autumn, therefore, water only in the 
morning, and the heat of the soil will not be materially 
lowered, the sun's rays communicating fresh warmth. 

It should be the great object of tin 1 gardener to avoid 
the necessity of watering, by shading the earth or the 



250 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH 

plants themselves by mulching, top-dressing, or sun 
shades. Seeds will come up much more satisfactorily in 
the open ground if shaded, than if one depends upon 
watering. If watering is resorted to at all, it should be 
given copiously and the supply kept up until the plants 
are established. After watering, the ground should be 
stirred about the plants, if up, as soon as it is sufficiently 
dry, and never allowed to become hard. A mulching of 
leaf mould is desirable, to keep the surface in a proper 
state, and if applied when the surface is wet, it will pre- 
vent the necessity of repeated waterings. (De Candolle, 
Lindley, Mcintosh.) 

Summer Cultivation. — If before seeds are planted, 
the soil be deeply moved and finely pulverized, the labor 
necessary in the subsequent culture of garden crops is 
greatly diminished. Still, the hoe cannot be dispensed 
with, and the soil is stirred therewith among our growing 
crops, in order that the earth may be kept in a light and 
permeable state, so that the roots of plants may extend 
freely through it in search of food. If kept in this condi- 
tion, water deposited by rain and dew is imbibed more 
readily and sinks more deeply into the soil, supplying 
plants both with moisture and ammonia. Moisture from 
beneath is also more freely supplied by capillary attrac- 
tion from the subsoil if the earth is kept in a light, porous 
state. The atmosphere, laden with nutritive gases, freely 
penetrates the soil and deposits nourishment within reach 
of the young rootlets of plants. By the same process 
weeds are destroyed, their growth prevented, and there 
is also a thorough pulverization and intermixture with 
the soil of the manures which have been applied. 

Judgment as to the time and manner of hoeing must be 
exercised. Even hoeing may do harm — but there is more 
danger that it will not be done sufficiently often, than per- 
formed imperfectly. In a hot and a dry climate, hoe less 



MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 251 

deeply than in those that are cold and moist, as hoeing 
favors evaporation, and this may prove injurious where 
the sun is hot and the rains are not frequent. So in 
spring, hoe more deeply and frequently than when the 
season becomes advanced. A heavy, argillaceous soil 
should be more deeply moved than one more sandy. 
Where a poor soil has been recently manured, it should 
not be hoed too deeply, but the compost should be allowed 
to remain intermixed with the surface soil. 

In practice the plants cultivated and their stage of ad- 
vancement must also be considered. Plants with long- 
tap-roots, like beets and carrots, are benefited by deep 
hoeing, which might be injurious to those with fibrous 
and spreading roots. Among the latter, deep culture be- 
tween the rows is beneficial, so long as the plants are 
young, and their roots not extended; but when they begin 
to shade much of the surface, and to occupy most of the 
soil with their roots, merely loosening the immediate sur- 
face, at the same time destroying all weeds, will be quite 
sufficient. 

All garden crops, then, should be frequently and deeply 
hoed early in the season, and in the early stages of their 
growth. Even to suppress the weeds which spring up 
freely in the moist soil at that time requires frequent and 
thorough hoeing. Of course, hoeing, or moving the soil 
in any way, is not to be undertaken while it is wet. When 
young seedling plants first appear, the earth must bo 
lightly stirred about them, to break up any crust upon the 
surface that may have formed. Take care not to injure 
the young plants, though at this time the mutilation of a 
few roots, if the most of them are unhurt, is easily re- 
paired; and the plant is not so much injured by their loss 
as benefited by that thorough pulverization of the soil 
that permits the free extension of tin 1 roots, and opens it 
to the air and night dews. 



252 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

At this time all weeds should be removed, and the 
plants thinned to an inch apart, so as not to interfere with 
each other. When they have made a little more growth, 
and there is less danger of insects and other disasters, 
they should be thinned to the proper distance and hoed 
more deeply, taking care not to cover or injure the young- 
plants. After this continue to keep the soil light and 
open, of course destroying all weeds. 

In heavy loams, watering or dashing rains w r ill fre- 
quently puddle the surface, which bakes in the sun so 
effectually as to exclude the atmosphere. The rains that 
follow flow off without sinking into and moistening the 
soil. But a soil which, soon after each rain, while not too 
wet, is freshly hoed, will, at all times, present an open, 
porous, finely pulverized surface, ready for the absorp- 
tion of plant food from the atmosphere, and easily per- 
meable to the roots of plants in search of it. 

As the plants increase in size, the ground is shaded by 
their foliage, which, in a measure, prevents the growth 
of weeds and protects the surface of the soil from being- 
hardened by the sun. At this time hoeing is less required, 
nor can it be performed without considerable mutilation 
of the branches and larger roots, and thus cutting off in 
part their communication with the soil — injuries from 
which plants in an advanced stage of growth, and under 
the burning heat of summer do not readily recover. 

It is not fully decided whether the soil should be fre- 
quently stirred during droughts. Our present opinion is, 
that in all warm climates it should, at such times, be un- 
disturbed. If the earth be already loose and in fine tilth, 
the air that enters into its pores will deposit its moisture 
therein. At night the dews are deposited much more 
heavily upon freshly dug soil. But this deposit of atmos- 
pheric moisture will avail little if the surface is often 
stirred, as more water will be given off by day than is 



MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 253 

absorbed at night; and a plot frequently hoed during a 
drought would at length become quite dry to nearly the 
depth it was cultivated. However it may be in England, 
here no deposit of moisture from night dews, or supply 
brought up by capillary attraction from beneath, can 
make good the loss of water by evaporation from the soil 
in a hot summer day. De Candolle says that in most hot 
countries frequent hoeings are avoided, as they really 
have the evil of favoring evaporation of moisture from 
the soil at the time when, the heat being most intense, 
the water is naturally retained therein by the hardening 
of its surface, and would act with most activity in decom- 
posing and dissolving the organic matters it contains. 
The true course is deep, thorough culture early in the 
season and while plants are young. But hoeing must not 
be performed in spring or autumn, at times w T hen the in- 
dications are that frosty nights will follow, as tender 
plants are much more likely to be killed thereby from 
the increased evaporation at the surface of fresh dug soil. 
Through the summer, after each good rain, as soon as the 
ground will do to w r ork, stir the surface and kill the w x eeds, 
leaving it in a light, friable condition, to be undisturbed, 
unless to destroy any weeds that appear, until another 
rain renders further hoeing necessary. Continue this 
until the plants approach blossoming, or begin to cover 
the ground, after which hoeing, if performed at all, must 
be as shallow 7 as possible. A soil thus managed is always 
open to atmospheric influences, and what moisture it may 
have or receive is better retained. 



254 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

PROTECTION FROM FROST. 

Late spring frosts are the terror of gardeners. In sec- 
tions of country subject to them, tender plants should not 
be planted early. As mulched or newly dug soils are 
much more liable to the white frosts of spring, mulching 
should not be applied to Irish potatoes, etc., until danger 
of frosts is over, nor should tender plants be hoed when 
a change to cold may be anticipated. If a frost is appre- 
hended, plants in hills are best protected with boxes, vine 
shields, or plant protectors placed over them. Rows of 
beans or potatoes can be secured by covering them Avith 
wide plank placed on blocks two or three inches above 
the plants. "Almost all the modes of protecting plants 
are founded on the doctrine of radiation, and hence the 
fact should be kept constantly in mind that all bodies 
placed in a medium colder than themselves are con- 
tinually giving out their heat in straight lines, and that 
these straight lines, when the body is surrounded by air, 
may always be reflected back upon the body from which 
they emanate by the slightest covering placed at a short 
distance from them; while, on the other hand, if this 
slight covering be placed close to the body, instead of 
reflecting back the heat it will carry it off by conduction — 
that is, the heat will pass off through the covering closely 
applied, and be radiated from its surface."' (Daniel.) 
Hence, the covering or protection given is far more effi- 
cient if it enclose a stratum of air without actually touch- 
ing the plant. 

When plants are actually frozen, in many cases they 
may be saved if they can be thawed gradually without 
exposure to the sun. To effect this, if coverings are ap* 



.PROTECTION FROM FROST. 255 

plied before sunrise, or the plants are sprinkled repeat- 
edly with water until the frost is extracted, they generally 
escape without serious injury. If a frosty night is followed 
by a cloudy or foggy morning, injury to plants need not 
be apprehended. 

Fruit trees and vines in blossom, or with young fruit 
set, are in some large districts so liable to suffer from late 
spring frost, that fruit bearing, in the case of those first 
to bloom, is the exception. The crop is lost, perhaps, two 
years out of three. It is seldom in the most frosty locali- 
ties that they are endangered more than two or three 
nights in a season, all the fruit of the peach being rarely 
killed until it begins to enlarge, and the blossom is on 
the wane. Such trees are too large to admit of being 
covered. They can, however, be fully protected by smoke. 
Ordinary smoke in still, frosty nights, rises rapidly, aud 
to be of any service, it must settle over the trees in a 
moderately dense cloud, acting as a screen and prevent- 
ing radiation. A heavy, damp smoke, not rising rapidly, 
in which the trees are kept fully enveloped until some 
time after sunrise, is what is necessary to protect a fruit 
garden. A slight frost will do fruit blossoms little injury, 
and there are some which will bear a good many more 
degrees of cold than others. When a severe frost is 
pretty certain, billets of short, dry wood, fat light-wood, 
and piles of wet tan, sawdust, or other damp trash, 
should be distributed about two rods apart over the fruit 
garden, and the most to the windward. The tan or trash 
should be distributed during the winter. About three 
o'clock iu the morning is soon enough to start the fires, 
each of which is made with three or four of the billets, 
being kindled with the light wood. When well lighted, 
put on and nearly smother it with the wet tan. If it 
again break out into a blaze, apply more tan, and keep 
up damp, smouldering fires, and a curtain of smoke over 



256 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 

the trees until the sun is well up and the frost fully ex- 
tracted. If the fruit is frozen hard as bullets, have no 
fears, but keep up a dense smoke. By this mode of apply- 
ing smoke the peach crop can be saved every year. There 
is no doubt about it. When a boy — thirty-five years ago — 
we ate of pears thus saved b} T an uncle of ours, and have 
ourselves since repeatedly practiced it and seen it tried 
by others. Our Gardening was the first English work, 
so far as we know, in which this mode of protection was 
published, though French authors, we find, allude to the 
process. Boussingault says it is as old as the Incas of 
Peru. The peach crop has thus been preserved with the 
mercury as low as 24° on the morning of March 27th, 
and the blossoms mostly fallen. Without such protection 
few good varieties of the peach are safe with the mer- 
cury below 30°. The expense of the operation is but a 
trifle, compared with the value of a fine crop of fruit in a 
locality where all, not thus protected, is cut off. 

Winter protection is also necessary for the preservation 
of many valuable plants, the limits within which they are 
naturally found being much narrower than those within 
which they can be grown in perfection with a little pro- 
tection. Besides ordinary bedding plants which are 
stored during the winter in pits or other structures, and 
again occupy the beds and borders when danger of frost 
is over, there is a large class of plants, that, with a slight 
protection where they stand, will pass the winter safely, 
and throw up much more vigorous shoots than if taken 
up and replanted. A friend of ours succeeds perfectly 
with the fig in Pennsylvania by bending down the limbs 
yearly and covering them with earth; while in Georgia, 
with no protection, they are occasionally killed to the 
ground. 

Ordinary herbaceous plants need no protection unless 
they have been divided or transplanted in autumn. Those 



PROTECTION FROM FROST. 40 i 

that are more tender may have their roots and crowns 
protected with moss, straw, or coarse stable manure, not 
placed so thick as to heat. If leaves are used a Uttle soil 
or brush should be thrown over them to keep them in 
place. Tender bulbs are protected in the same way. If 
the foliage is evergreen, it must not be smothered with 
too thick a covering. 

Shrubby plants may have their roots well covered thus, 
and their stems bound with straw or moss. For small 
shrubs, a few evergreen boughs thrown over them is a 
good protection; larger ones may have their branches 
drawn together and wound with straw. Tender roses may 
have tan-bark or sawdust banked up about their stems, 
to be removed in spring. 

Climbing plants, if tender, must be taken down and 
laid upon the soil to be covered with leaves or earth. 

There is some danger where much litter is used, of 
harboring vermin. Many tilings are better protected by 
bending a few hoops across the bed with three or four 
laths lying on them, on which is thrown a cloth or mat- 
ting in severe weather. Pansies, carnations, and stocks, 
are thus generally protected, giving them light and air in 
mild weather. Flower pots, sun shades, vine shields, and 
wooden frames, covered with canvas or oiled paper, are 
all useful in protecting low plauts. Boxes and barrels 
are convenient for larger ones. None of these must touch 
the plant they cover, as they would conduct the heat away 
from what they touched. The main object of these 
coverings is to confine the air and protect the surface 
from radiating heat. 

All plants will endure more frost uninjured in a dry, 
well-drained soil. In low, damp locations, plants, else- 
where considered hardy, are frequently killed by frost. 
They are also much more easily injured directly after a 
mild term starts them into growth. 



258 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

In Florida protection against frost is secured Dy the 
use of laths fastened with wire (the space between each 
being the width of the lath). This screen spread over the 
plants greatly retards the radiation of heat from the 
plant, and reduces the chances for frost. 

Mr. E. L. Koethen, a member of the Frost Protection 
Committee of the Riverside Horticultural Club, of Cali- 
fornia, gives the following excellent data concerning his 
experiments on protection against frost. The conclusions 
are of great interest to all fruit-growers: 

1. In sections where there is a prevailing draft from a certain direc- 
tion concentrate the fires somewhat on the sides of the orchard from 
which this draft comes. 

2. Some fires are needed all through the orchard. 

3. If the thermometer should reach 26° by midnight, start firing at 
once. If smudging is to be depended upon, you should commence much 
earlier. To be safe, commence lighting baskets, if the thermometer 
should reach 26° as late as 4:30 A. M. 

4. Ripe fruit will stand more frost than green fruit. The above 
figures are for ripe fruit. 

5. The thermometer may go many degrees below the dew-point in 
our climate on nights when the sun sets behind heavy clouds. 

6. A mild day may be followed by a night of danger to citrus fruits. 

7. The upper strata of air are much warmer than the lower. Eight 
degrees was found to be the variation between a height of 5 and 50 
feet, upon different tests. 

8. Thermometers should be tested each year, and the variation noted 
and accounted for at each reading. 

9. A good way to secure uniform observations and the extreme tem- 
perature to which fruit is exposed is to fasten the thermometer to a 
slender stick five feet long and place in the space between four trees, 
away from buildings or other shelter. 

10. Every grove has some spot that is colder than any other. Find 
it, and be governed in your firing by the temperature there, keeping 
your eye en other locations, for the coldest place may shift around. 

11. A thermometer that registers too high may be very comforting, 
but is not a safe guide unless allowance is made for correction. 

12. A thermometer that registers too low may cost unnecessary 
labor, expense, and anxiety. 



PROTECTION FROM FROST. 259 

13. We need a united system of general alarm for localities through- 
out the valley. 

14. Wind-breaks, parallel with the flow of the cold stream air, are 
an advantage in preventing radiation. 

15. Close wind-breaks, at right angles to the flow of cold air, will 
form dams and cause low temperatures on the upper side. A block of 
large trees below a block of smaller trees will have the same effect. 

16. Coal baskets or brush fires concentrated at these points will 
drain off the cold air. 

17. Flowing water is a help, but is not sufficient in itself. 

18. Clean culture and a wet surface is the best condition of the soil 
in times of danger. 

19. Trees that had suffered from lack of water at any time during 
the development of the crop and those with a dry surface of the soil 
suffered greatest injury. 

20. Firing of any kind is beneficial if there is enough of it. 

21. The cost need not be prohibitive for good results. 

22. Accumulative firing is better than single-handed. 

23. A single grower can succeed in saving his fruit with coal baskets 
if he has enough of them. 

24. Be prepared to make more fires than you will likely need. The 
unexpected sometimes happens. 

25. No grower should depend on his neighbors for heat or smudge. 
Every gap is an injury to the whole. Besides, your neighbors may 
not locate their flres so as to do you much good. 

26. Coal baskets can be made for about seven cents each. The 
filling will cost about seven cents, where bituminous coal costs $10 per 
ton, and you should have from twenty-five to fifty per acre, according 
to location and size of grove. 

27. \ little burning straw is a snare and deceit. 

28. Straw smudge should be made with wet straw, should be dense, 
and should cover large areas to yield best results. Dry straw is of 
little value, except to help burn that which is very wet. 

29. The efficacy of smudging being dependent upon preventing radia- 
tion in very dry climates, early lighting in such cases is imperative. 

30. A little dry brush is a great help in burning very wet straw. 

31. Green cypress boughs create a fine smudge. 

32. Most groves have a cold corner. Have some brush piles ready 
to light at the critical hour — about dawn. 

33. Coal baskets should be full at the start. Coal will not ignite 
readily in replenishing if a good bed of coals is not secured at first. A 
reserve supply of coal may be very useful if the cold is long continued. 



260 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

34. Coal baskets need less attention than the smudge. 

35. Have plenty of help. The better your fires are tended, the better 
the results. 

36. But few employees can be depended upon to look after the details 
and carry on the work. Your personal attention is needed. 

37. Every detail should be prepared beforehand. There is no time to 
hunt up torches and tools after the danger point is reached. 

38. Oil fires will do good work, but the smut is objectionable. 

39. Evaporating pans give no visible results. 

40. An awning or cover was found to be of great service. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



261 



CHAPTER XV. 



VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 

ARTICHOKE.— ( Cynara Scohjmus.) 

The garden artichoke is a perennial plant, a native of 
the south of Europe, where it has been in cultivation from 
the time of the Romans. Columella mentions it, and says 

its name — Cynara — is from 
cinere (ashes), because the soil 
for artichokes should be 
dressed with ashes. The plant 
resembles an overgrown this- 
tle, but is more beautiful ; has 
large, pinnatifid leaves, three 
or four feet long, covered 
with an ash-colored dowm. 
The eatable portion is the un- 
developed flower head, which 
is only fit for use before it 
begins to open its bloom; it 
is about the size and some- 
what the shape of a small 
pineapple. 

As the artichoke is a native 
of a hot climate, it is per- 
fectly adapted to the temper- 
ature of the South, and is hardy throughout the Union. It 
adds a pleasant variety to our early summer luxuries, 
and should be in more general cultivation. 

There are three varieties — the Globe, the Oval Green, 
and the Purple. The first has dull purplish heads with 
scales turned in at the top, and is most esteemed, the 




Fig. 



war/ 

100— Artichoke. 



262 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

edible parts being larger. The Oval Green is the hardiest 
sort, and has a conical or ovate head, with pointed scales 
turned outward. The Purple is earlier than the others, 
the scales pointed, tinted with purplish red towards their 
points, but is not so good when cooked. There is also the 
large green, which grows larger than the common green, 
and is most esteemed at Paris under the name Gros vert 
de Laon. The base of the scales of this variety is quite 
thick and fleshy. 

The ash of the artichoke has been analyzed, and it is 
found that potash and phosphoric acid are the most 
abundant constituents, indicating the application of 
ashes and bone-dust as the best special manures. 

Propagation and Culture. — Artichokes are propagated 
by seed, or by offsets from the old roots. If by seed, sow 
in early spring when the peach is in full blossom, in very 
rich earth, in drills an inch and a half deep, and a foot 
apart; they do still better by sowing them earlier in a 
cold-frame. Transplant them when from six to twelve 
inches high into a rich soil. If the beds are thinned out 
by transplanting, so that the plants are left a foot apart 
in the rows, the rest may remain in the seed bed until 
fall. The finest heads are produced in a rich, moist loam, 
and they should be transplanted into such a soil. The 
best compost is a mixture of three parts well-decomposed 
manure, and one of leached ashes. They require an open 
exposure, free from the shade and drip of trees, or the 
plants will spindle and produce worthless heads. The 
rows must be four feet apart, and the plants three feet 
in the rows. Plants from seed are better and more per- 
manent than from offsets. 

If propagated by suckers, these must be slipped off in 
spring from the parent plant, retaining as many fibrous 
roots as possible. They should be selected when the 
leaves are eight or ten inches high, and be taken only 



VEUETAHLEt> DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 263 

from those shoots which are sound and strong, and have 
already formed some roots. Uncover the old stools to the 
origin of the suckers, of which from six to twelve will be 
produced to each plant. Allow two or three of the best 
of these to remain; slip off the others with a heel, from 
which trim off the rough part smoothly, retaining the 
fibrous roots, ltemove the large outside leaves, or their 
exhalations will exhaust the plant before it gets rooted. 
Thejr are greatly invigorated if set in water three or four 
hours before they are planted. Set them in rows, the 
same distance as above, about four inches deep, in holes 
made with a trowel; press a portion of fresh soil about 
their roots and water freely. When this has settled away, 
fill up to the surface with soil. Keep sun shades or 
shingles upon the south side of them a few days, until 
established, giving water, if needed, until they begin to 
grow. 

The only other attention they require during the sum- 
mer is the frequent use of the hoe. They will produce 
heads the same year from June to October, and annually 
thereafter from April to June or July, according to the 
season. The quality is improved, though at the expense 
of the quantity, by allowing only the head surmounting 
the main stem to grow on each stalk, removing all the 
laterals of the stem while young. As often as the head 
is cut, the stem should be broken down close to the root, 
to encourage the production of suckers before winter. 
They should receive their winter dressing before the 
ground freezes deeply. Tut away the old leaves without 
injuring the center or side shoots, dig the ground over, 
and throw the soil in a low, broad ridge over each row, 
putting it close about the plants, but leaving the hearts 
clear. As soon as the shoots appear four or five inches 
above the surface, the ridges thrown up must be levelled 
and the earth removed from about the stock to below the 



264: GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

part whence the young shoots spring, rieinove all these 
shoots but two, or at most three, leaving the most vigor- 
ous, taking care to select those lowest down on the stock, 
as the strong, thick ones from the crown have hard, woody 
stems, and produce but indifferent heads. 

Although the artichoke is a perennial, yet after the 
fifth year, the heads grow small and dry. The beds should 
iu consequence be broken up at this time, or as soon as 
they begin to fail, and fresh ones be formed on another 
site. 

As the newly-made beds come into flower after the 
season for the old plants is over, those fond of this vege- 
table will prefer to make a new plantation every year. 

Artichokes are made to attain a much larger size than 
they otherwise would by twisting a ligature tightly 
around the stem below each head, and thus preventing 
the reflux of the sap. 

The artichoke is much benefited by the application of 
seaweed or any other manure containing common salt. 
This is probably in a great measure because salt keeps the 
soil moist. 

Chard*. — After the best heads have been cut, when old 
plantations are to be destroyed, cut off the stems as low 
as possible, and the leaves within six inches of the ground. 
When the new leaves are two feet high, blanch them, as 
directed for Cardoons, which many think the}' excel. 

For Fred. — Select a few of the finest heads and permit 
them to flower. Bend over the stalk and tie the head to 
a small stake, to prevent the water from settling among 
the expanded scales. When the flower has withered, the 
seeds will be ripe. One ounce of the seed will produce 
about six hundred plants, and for three and sometimes 
five years will vegetate freely if kept cool and dry. Put 
away in paper bags for use. 

Properties- and Use. — The artichoke is wholesome, yet 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 265 

it contains but little nutriment, and is cultivated merely 
to please the palate. The heads are sometimes pickled. 
It is eaten by the French as a salad, with oil and vinegar, 
salt and pepper; the bottoms are often fried in paste like 
the eggplant. The English gather them when they 
spread their scales and the flower appears about to open; 
the whole head is boiled and scales pulled off, one or 
two at a time, dipped in butter and pepper, and the mealy 
part stripped off with the teeth. The bottom, when the 
leaves are disposed of, is eaten with the knife and fork. 
The flowers have the properties of rennet in curdling 
milk. 

ARTICHOKE, TERTJBALEHL.—(HeliantJi us tuberosus.) 

This is a hardy, perennial species of sunflower, a native 
of Brazil, introduced into England in 1617, and was much 
esteemed as a garden 
vegetable until the Irish 
potato took its place. 
The crops obtained in 
good soils are enormous. 

~„ , „ t . , , Fig. 101— Jerusalem Artichoke. 

The salts found in the 

ashes are mainly potash and lime, the former very largely. 
Culture. — It flourishes best in a rich, light soil, with an 
open exposure, but will thrive in almost any soil or loca- 
tion. Plant in spring or fall, either small tubers or the 
large ones, cut into sets of one or two eyes, four inches 
deep, in rows three and a half feet apart. Make the rows 
run north and south, to admit the sun, and put the plants 
eighteen inches apart in the rows. Keep the ground free 
from weeds and earth up slightly. They will be fit for 
use in the fall. Take care to dig them up thoroughly, as 
the smallest piece will vegetate. They will grow on land 
too poor for almost anything else. If the top be cut off 
one-half way down in August, it is said by some that the 




266 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

size of the tuber will be very much increased by the ad- 
mission of air and light. This is doubtful. 

Use. — The roots are eaten boiled, mashed with butter, 
and are considerably nutritive, nearly as much so as the 
Irish potato. It has a moist, soft texture, and a tolerably 
agreeable taste. It is, however, rather a second-rate dish. 
They are better pickled in vinegar. The plant is most 
useful in feeding cows and pigs, affording large quantities 
of food from quite poor soils. 

ASPARAGUS. — f Asparagus officinalis.) 

This plant has been cultivated as a garden vegetable 
for at least two thousand years. Cato, one hundred and 
fifty years before Christ, gives a full detail of its mode of 
culture among the Romans. Its culture originated 
probably in Greece, for its name is pure Greek, and signi- 
fies a bud not full}' opened; and it is known throughout 
Europe by names derived or corrupted from the Greek. 

The wild asparagus is found on the sea coasts of most 
parts of Europe. Its stem is not thicker than a goose- 
quill. From this wild plant, by the aid of manure and 
culture, our delicious garden varieties were raised. Miller 
has succeeded in effecting the same result in modern 
times. 

There are only two varieties of any importance — the 
green and the red-topped. The latter, with purplish green 
shoots, is the one principally cultivated. There are some 
sub-varieties, but these derive all their merit from 
superior cultivation. E. Thompson states there is really 
but one sort of asparagus. 

Asparagus, like some other plants, has the power of 
substituting the other alkalies, lime and potash, in the 
place of soda. All the analyses exhibit large propor- 
tions of chloride of sodium, or its elements, chlorine 
and sodium, also of phosphoric acid. In asparagus, over 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 267 

three-fifths of the inorganic elements of the plant are 
made up of these constituents. This explains why salt 
and seaweed are found useful, and shows that the appli- 
cation of bone manure, or superphosphate of lime, in con- 
nection with animal manures, may be beneficial. 

Culture. — Asparagus is propagated only by seed, one 
ounce of which will produce a thousand plants. Sow 
quite early in spring on a bed of fresh and deep sandy 
loam, the richer the better — as free as possible from all 
shade of trees or shrubs. Draw the drills one foot apart, 
and with a dibble make holes six inches distant, in which 
drop two or three seeds. Let the seed be covered an inch 
deep, and press the earth upon it. If unable to sow early 
shade must be given to the bed, for which purpose pine 
boughs are well suited. These should be removed at 
night and on cloudy days, and entirely as soon as the 
plants are up. 

Care must be taken to keep the seed-bed light and free 
from weeds, though this operation must be delayed until 
the plants come up. If two plants appear in the same 
place, the weaker must be removed. Transplanted, these 
will make pretty good plants by fall. When the steins 
are withered, cut them down and spread well-rotted 
stable dung over the bed two inches deep, which will 
increase the vigor of the plants the next year, and also 
protect them from frost. 

Let the plants remain in the seed-bed until they are 
about to grow early in spring. To have this delicacy as 
early as possible, choose a site where the bed can be fully 
exposed to the sun. If you wish to prolong its season, 
another bed may be planted on a northern exposure. The 
subsoil should be dry, and if not naturally so, must be 
well drained. 

The plants will be in better condition for transplanting 
after remaining in the seed-bed two years. The perma- 



268 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

nent beds for asparagus are prepared by cutting trenches 
with a plow. In field culture many growers make these 
trenches thirt}- inches apart, to permit cultivation with 
horse. The plow is run over the trenches two or three 
times, so that a depth of ten or twelve inches is secured. 
Well-rotted manure is now placed in and incorporated 
with the soil by means of a fork. Set the plants in the 
trenches thus prepared twelve to fifteen inches apart, 
taking care to spread out the roots, and cover with four 
or five inches of soil. If healthy plants have been drawn 
from the seed-bed and good manuring given the trenches, 
cutting the asparagus niay be begun the second year. 
The cutting must never be continued late in the season, 
but sufficient shoots must be left to develop leaves, or 
otherwise the roots will soon become exhausted and the 
plants will die. After the cutting has ceased the rows 
must be manured or fertilized by opening with the plow 
near the plants, placing the fertilizer in and running the 
plow over again to thoroughly mix the ingredients with 
the soil. Ground bone is suitable for this purpose. 

All weeds must be removed as they appear. As salt is 
an excellent manure for this plant, the weeds may be 
easily kept down by its application.* Old brine or refuse 
salt, in which meat or fish has been packed, is better than 
any other, as it abounds in the blood and juices of the 
meat, which are a most valuable fertilizer. Asparagus 
is a sea-shore plant, and salt will not hurt it, but is life 
and nourishment to it. 

Old beds have been covered an inch deep, and the 
plants continued to thrive; but a sprinkling just sufficient 
to make the soil look white is enough. As soon as the 
plants have turned yellow in the fall, cut them down close 
to the ground, but be careful not to do this early, or they 



* It is but proper to say that the advantage of salt for asparagus is 
now questioned by some gardeners. — P. H. M. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUKE. 269 

will throw up new shoots and be much weakened. Re- 
move the stalks and all weeds, cover the beds with three 
or four inches of good stable manure, and let it remain 
until time for the spring dressing. If you have charcoal 
dust at command, a layer of an inch thick over the manure 
will be found quite useful iu preventing the loss of ammo- 
nia. When the weather grows warm and spring has 
fairly opened, and the ground is sufficiently dry, before 
growth commences, with an asparagus fork dig in the 
manure placed on the beds in the fall, and loosen the 
earth four inches deep, taking care not to wound the 
crowns of the plants. Give the beds a top-dressing of salt, 
two pounds to the square yard, or kainit at the rate of 
six hundred pounds per acre, before growth commences, 
and water freely in dry weather. Applications of liquid 
manure are likewise very salutary. A good liquid manure 
for asparagus is an ounce of fertilizer and four ounces 
of salt to two gallons of water. Fertilizer or night soil 
composted with charcoal, so as to be entirely inodorous, 
is also beneficially applied at any time. Another slight 
covering of charcoal dust, after the spring dressing, will 
be of service, and make the shoots earlier. 

Asparagus should be cut before the heads lose their 
compact form, when only four or five inches above the 
ground.* Remove the earth to the bottom of the stalk, 
and cut it off sloping with a pointed knife, taking care 
not to wound any other shoots that may be near it, as 
they are constantly putting forth from the crowns. Too 
many shoots should not be cut from the beds, nor the 
gathering prolonged too late. Whenever the bed puts 
up weak and small shoots, these should be allowed to 

* Some market gardeners now send to the market green asparagus 
that is all cut above ground, because of the demand. The vegetable 
in this stage is considered to be tenderer and better flavored than 
the white. 



270 GAKDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

remain, which will increase the size of those remaining, 
and the future value of the bed. When green peas be- 
come plentiful the asparagus bed should rest. After the 
cutting ceases, you may judge from the size of the sum- 
mer shoots the productiveness of the bed the coming 
spring. These elaborate the food for the future crop. 
The manure applied in autumn has but little effect on the 
next spring's shoots, but from its influence the strong- 
growth of the succeeding summer will prepare an abun- 
dant supply of large shoots the second spring. The spring 
and autumn dressings should be continued while the bed 
lasts, for the top soil must be kept perfectly free and 
light, that the shoots may readily push through it, and 
the surface left rough, that it may catch and retain the 
winter rains so as to thoroughly moisten the low r er roots. 
Finally, good asparagus is not to be obtained without 
an abundant supply of manure. The beds will, if thus 
treated, remain productive twelve or fifteen years. 

Asparagus can be forced by planting a hot-bed thickly 
with thrifty roots; it comes into bearing in four weeks, 
and affords asparagus for a month in the winter season. 
Give plenty of air in mild weather. 

The following varieties are standard, and may be pur- 
chased from the seed merchants already rooted: Colum- 
bian Mammoth, Conover's Colossal, Palmetto. 

For Seed. — Eeserve some of the best shoots in the 
spring, and mark them by placing a stake by each one, 
and let them run up and ripen their seeds. Take shoots 
with fine, round, close heads; fasten them, as they grow, 
up to the stake, and the seed will ripen better. Gather 
the seed when ripe, and wash off the pulp and husk, w T hich 
will pass off with the water, if gently poured off, and the 
seed w T ill sink to the bottom. Dry them thoroughly, and 
store away for use. They are, for your own sowing, just 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



271 



as well kept and sown in the. pulp. Asparagus seed will 
keep four years. 

Use. — The tender shoots thrown up in the spring when 
four or five inches long, are the parts in use, and are 
very delicate and much esteemed, though not very nutri- 
tious. They are excellent simply boiled, or as an addition 
to soups when in season. 

Marketing. — To enter the market first with this popu- 
lar vegetable will always secure to the grower good 




Fig. 102— Bunching Asparagus. 



prices. Therefore the policy should be to plant the 
earliest varieties under the best conditions. But unless 
the asparagus is properly prepared and packed profits 
will be greatly curtailed. It is important to understand 
this fact at the beginning, and to make an honest effort to 
place the vegetable in the market in the most attractive 
form. Because of the advanced season in the South the 



272 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



truckers have a peculiar advantage over the Northern 
gardeners, and they should strive to avail themselves of 
this opportunity for reaching the Northern markets be- 
fore the demand is greatly diminished. After cutting the 
asparagus the spears are carefully washed and then as- 
sorted into Extras, Primes and 
Seconds, the last containing the 
smaller spears. The bunching 
is generally done by women in 
the use of the u buncher " illus- 
trated in Figure 102. This 
method insures uniformity in 
the bunches and neatness in 
looks. Figure 103 shows the 
bunch after it has been tied 
with raffia or other suitable 
fastener. 

In shipping to a distant mar- 
ket pack carefully in a crate, 
taking care to have the vegeta- 
ble so secure that it will not 
bruise in transit. The crate 
usually adopted in the South is 
known as " Southern crate,'' 
which is built to hold two to 
three dozen bunches set on ends 
Fig. 103-Bunching Asparagus. on mo i s t moss to keep the as- 
paragus fresh. Shipping by express must be resorted to 
for long distances, so that the vegetable will reach the 
market in first-class condition. 

BASIL. — (Ocimum Basilicum, and 0. minimum.) 

Two species are cultivated — Sweet Basil (0. Basilicum) 
and Bnsh Basil (0. minimum). Both are annuals, with 
small leaves and small white flowers, and natives of the 




VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUKE. 273 

East Indies. Sweet basil is the species most cultivated, 
and was introduced iuto England in 1548. 

Culture. — Basil likes a rich, light soil, free from shade. 
The plants may be started earl}' in March, under glass, in 
gentle heat. They should be thiuned when the young 
plants appear, and transplanted when of sufficient size 
where they are to remain. Basil is rather difficult to 
transplant, but can be carefully lifted in tufts with the 
balls of earth attached, in a moist time, with complete 
success. Give water and shade until established. It can 
also be sown on the borders whore it is to remain, but if 
sown too early in the open air, the seed is apt to rot, or 
the young plants to be killed by frost, as thej r are rather 
tender. April is the month for sowing in the open ground. 
Do not cover the seed deeply, but press the earth upon it. 
Make the rows ten inches apart, and thin the sweet basil 
to ten inches, and the bush, which is more dwarf, to five 
inches in the row. Weeds must be kept under, and the 
soil mellow, by frequent hoeing. Bush basil makes a very 
pretty edging. It should be cut not too closely just as it 
comes into flower, and hung up in small bundles in the 
shade to dry for winter use; thus cut, it w T ill soon grow 
up again. When thoroughly dried, it may be pounded 
fine and kept any length of time in closely stopped bottles. 

aSW. — Let some of the finest plants remain uncut, and 
gather the seeds as they ripen. They will keep for six 
years. 

Use. — The leaves and small tops are the parts em- 
ployed, and give a delightful flavor in cookery. They 
have a strong flavor of cloves, and are used in soups and 
sauces, and other high-seasoned dishes. They are much 
employed in French cookery. It is the most agreeable 
of the pot herbs, and the most useful, except parsley and 
sage. 

A small sprig of basil, on account of its odor, is an 
agreeable addition to a bouquet of flowers. 
18 



274 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



BEANS. 



Gardeners recognize three groups of beans, which are 
designated in catalogues and other publications on the 
subject of plants as — 

1. Ordinary broad bean (Vicia Faba). 

2. Bush, Dwarf, or French kidney beans (Phaseolus 
vulgaris or P. lunatus). Under this head is classed all 
those beans called by seedmen " Bunch," " (Snaps," etc. 

3. Pole or climbing beans (Phaseolus multiflorus). 

The last two groups are subdivided into — 

Bush lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus var. macrocarpus). 

There are three types under this division, viz. : (1) Sieva or 

Carolina, {'!) flat, and (3) potato. 
Pole lima beans. 

Under these several heads a number of varieties have 
been developed by the seedmen, some of which are well 
adapted to Southern soils and climate. 

BEAN, ENGLISH BROAD.— (Vicia Faba.) 

The English Broad Bean is an annual from two to four 
feet high, with white, fragrant, papilionaceous flowers, 
with a black spot in the middle of the wings; seed pods 
thick, long, woolly within, enclosing large, ovate, flat 
seeds, for the sake of which it is much cultivated in 
Europe. It is a native of the East — some say of Egypt, 
but is probably from Persia, near the Caspian Sea — and 
has been cultivated from time immemorial. 

VARIETIES. 

Mazagan. — Sweet and agreeable in flavor, and pro- 
duces well if planted early. Far the most productive 
variety with me. Pods contain three or four beans, which 
are small, oblong, and thick. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 275 

Long Pod. — Stems rise about three or four feet hiiih. 
Bears well. The pods are long, narrow, and generally eon- 
tain four beans of good quality. Remains in use later 
than the preceding. 

Broad Windsor. — Stems three to four feet high; pods 
short, but very broad, containing two beans, very large, 
roundish, and flattened. Best for a late crop, as it is 
longest in use. 

Culture.— The early crops should be on a dry soil mod- 
erately rich and warm, to promote their growth during 
the winter. The later crops should be on a deep, strong- 
loam. They are to be sown in drills two and a half feet 
apart for the Dwarf and Mazagan, and three feet for the 
others; put the beans four inches apart in the row, and 
cover three inches deep with earth, which should be 
pressed upon the seed. If any miss, they may be supplied 
by transplanting. This bean will do well wherever the 
winters remain open, and the mercury does not, in ordi- 
nary years, fall below about 10° Fahrenheit, and should 
be planted from October to February inclusive. In Vir- 
ginia, and where frosts are severe, they must be put in as 
soon as the ground opens in spring, but they are then not 
as productive as when they can be planted during the 
months above named. No ordinary frost w r ill injure them. 
When two inches high, hoe between and draw the earth 
about the stems of the plants. Continue this during their 
growth. When the plants come into bloom, take off two 
or three inches of the tops of the stems, which will in- 
crease the crop and hasten its maturity. The crop should 
be gathered before they are full grown, while they are 
still tender and delicate. 

To Save Seed. — Allow a portion of the crop to remain 
until ripe. Thresh for use. 

Use. — The English use these beans while young and 



21 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

tender, as we do green peas. They must be cooked very 
young, and in the same manner; or may be boiled with 
bacon. They are not likely to come into general use. 

BEAN, DWARF OR FRENCH KIDNEY.— (Phaseolus vulgaris.) 

These are tender, Leguminous annuals, mostly natives 
of India, first cultivated in England in 151)7. Of this 
species there are many varieties, of which the following 
are the best. (Those with edible pods, breaking crisply, 
are called snaps): 

Early Mohawk. — Pods long, beans large, oval, with 
dark-colored specks. It bears very well, is one of the 
earliest varieties, and is least injured by frost. In good 
seasons, fit for the table about five or six weeks afte* 1 
sowing. 

Early Valentine. — Pods round, and continue crisp 
longer than most other varieties. The beans are pink- 
speckled on a salmon ground. Bears well. Sown with 
Early Mohawk, is about five days later. 

Newington Wonder. — Very dwarf, pods of medium 
length, dark-green color, thick and fleshy; seeds form 
slowly, and the pods continue long crisp and fit for use. 
Seeds small, oblong, and light chestnut-colored when 
ripe. 

Royal Kidney. — Pods long, finely flavored; seeds 
white and large. Sown at the same time as the Mohawk 
and Valentine; is a fortnight later than the Mohawk. 
This is one of the best for winter use when ripe. 

Of Running or Pole Beans, the best are: 

Dutch Case Knife, with large, broad pods, and flat- 
fish, kidney-shaped, white seeds. It is a good winter bean. 

Algiers or Wax Bean is an early, running kind, with 
pale yellow pods, free from any tough lining, very tender 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



277 



and soft when cooked ; seeds medium-sized, roundish, 
black. Excellent, but at the South soon stops bearing. 

London Horticultural is also excellent, the pods 
continuing tender until the seeds are quite large; the 
latter are large and roundish. 

In Southern corn-fields are grown several excellent 
kinds, which are not described in our books. Three are 
particularly desirable, viz: 

White Prolific is a medium-sized, white, oval, kid- 




Kaighn. Willow-Leaf. Speckled. Black. Dreer. 

Fig. 104— Types of Lima Beans. Natural size (after Bailey). Cornell 
Experiment Station Bulletin 115. 

ney-shaped bean, with roundish tender pods, and exceed- 
ingly prolific; desirable green or for winter use. 

Dark Prolific resembles the last, but the seeds are of 
a very dark dun color. 

Black Speckled has the pods more flattened; seeds 
roundish, of a dull white, black speckled, and skin rather 
thick, but the pods are excellent to use green. Of very 
vigorous growth, and best endures the summer heats. 
Not over two plants should remain to a pole. 




Plate 2— New Extra Early Lima Bean (after Bailey). Cornell Experiment 
Station Bulletin 115. 



VEGETABLES DESCKIPTION AND CULTUEE. 279 

Lima Beans are from the East Indies. There are the 
green, the white, the speckled, and the small white or 
Carolina. The white Lima is not quite so large as the 
green, but, bearing with greater abundance, is to be pre- 
ferred. It is also not quite so hardy and productive as 
the Carolina, but is much larger and richer flavored, and 
is the most grown for city markets. 

The following varieties are also suited to the climate 
of the South, and are beans of excellent qualities: 

Black-Eyed Wax. — A very early and productive bean, 
with long, straight yellow pods. 

New Extra Early Refugee. — A most productive 
form, improved from the old Refugee variety; but much 
earlier, and very prolific; excellent quality; quite tender 
at nearly all stages of its growth; free from strings and a 
favorite shipping variety. 

Wardwell Kidney Wax. — A dwarf variety; early 
prolific; pods flat and stringless, waxy yellow; hardy and 
productive; a good shipper. 

Henderson's Bush Lima. — This bean comes at an 
early period in the season, when vegetables generally are 
not abundant, filling a gap between peas and pole-beans. 
The bean is small, but very productive, bearing until 
killed by frost. 

Burpee's Bush Lima. — A larger plant than the last, 
and not so early; but the pods and beans are larger, thus 
making this variety popular and desirable. 

Carolina or Butter bean closely resembles the white 
Lima, but is smaller, earlier, hardier, and bears much 
more abundantly, and though not quite so rich, is for 
general culture the best running bean. 

Wood-ashes and bone-dust, or superphosphate of lime, 
will supply the soil with the most necessary elements for 



280 



GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 



the bean crop, which, by the way, like most legumes, 
draws most of its sustenance from the atmosphere. 

Culture. — As beans are very easily destroyed by spring 
frosts, there is no use in planting the main crop too early. 
A few of the Extra Early or Mohawk may be planted at 
the same time with early corn, and if there is danger, 
protect them when they come up, by placing wide planks 
over the rows an inch or two above the plants, supported 




Fig. 105— Burpee's Bush Lima Bean. 

on blocks or bricks, every cold night. The main early crop 
is planted in Georgia the last of March, or early in April; 
near New York city about the first of May. Planting may 
continue until about eight weeks before the autumn 
frosts occur. The soil for the early crop should be dry 
and light; if wet or tenacious, the seed often decays with- 
out germinating, or comes up spindling and unproductive. 
For the summer-sown crop, a soil slightly moist, but still 
inclining to a sand, is to be preferred. 

Plant in drills eighteen inches or two feet apart, plac- 



VEGETABLES : — DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 28J 

ing the seed two inches apart in the row. Cover the seeds 
about au inch and a half deep. A pint of seed will plant 
about one hundred and twenty-five feet of rows. When 
the plants come up, thin them gradually to six or eight 
inches in the row, and they will be much more vigorous 
and productive. The Late Valentine does best in hills 
eighteen inches apart. Plant four. or five beans to a hill. 
Keep them always clean, and the soil light and mellow 
with the hoe. Draw the earth carefully about their stems 
when about to flower, making broad, low hills to protect 
the roots from heat aud drought. If well cultivated, the 
same plants will continue to bear a long time. Do not 
hoe any of the kidney beans, whether dwarf or runners, 
when the foliage is wet, as the plants will rust and be 
greatly injured, if not destroyed. Choose dry weather for 
working them, and hoe shallow when the plants get large. 
The value of the crop depends greatly upon their being 
properly thinned in the drills while young. 

Pole or running beans for snaps may be planted when 
the main crop of bush beans is put in, or a few days later; 
and at the South, a few hills should be planted monthly, 
until July, to give a succession, for which nothing is bet- 
ter than the corn-field varieties described. They should 
be planted in rows about four feet apart, and the hills 
from two and a half to three feet in the row. The hills 
should be broad and raised some three inches above the 
ground level. Put in the poles before planting, let them 
be uniformly about ten feet long, and inserted well in the 
ground. Put five or six beans around each pole, and 
cover them an inch and a half deep, and when up, reduce 
the plants to three in a hill, and where there are less 
than that, plant again. 

Lima beans require a rich, strong soil, and will thrive 
on heavy loams, where the other running beans and snaps 
would not flourish. They are still more tender than snaps, 



282 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

and should not be planted until settled warm weather, 
as the seed will rot in cool weather, and the slightest 
frost will destroy them if they chance to vegetate. The 
tenth of April is early enough in Middle Georgia; near 
New York city they plant a month later. They may be 
forwarded by planting in small pots in a hot-bed to be 
transferred, by breaking the balls, to the open ground 
when three inches high. Lima beans will not thrive if 
too much crowded; the rows must be five feet apart, and 
the hills three feet in the row. The space between may 
be cropped early in the season with Irish potatoes, etc. 
When the plants begin to run, give them a little assist- 
ance, if not inclined to cling to the poles. If these are too 
high, the vines are later in bearing, and the crop out of 
reach in gathering. When they blossom, pinch off the 
tips of the leading shoots, to hasten the maturity of the 
crop. 

In planting Lima beans, place the eye downward and 
the narrow end the lowest, as the bean always rises from 
the ground in that position, and if not planted right, it 
has to turn itself over in the soil, and if prevented by any 
obstruction from turning over, it is sure to rot in the 
ground. Planted in this way, they come up sooner, bet- 
ter, and more evenly. A quart will plant about four hun- 
dred hills. The subsequent culture consists in keeping 
the ground frequently hoed when the vines are dry. They 
will continue in bearing until cut off by the hard frosts. 

For Heed. — Gather both the Lima and kidney beans 
when ripe and dry them thoroughly. The seed should be 
kept pure by planting the varieties at a distance from 
each other. Where subject to be destroyed by bugs, 
instead of using paper bags, put them up in glass bottles 
or earthen jugs well corked. Into each bottle or jug pour, 
before corking, a teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine. The 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 283 

turpentine odor will destroy the bugs, if the vessel is 
tightly corked, without injuring the vitality of the bean. 

Use. — The tender, fleshy pods of snap-beans are a favor- 
ite summer vegetable, very delicate, wholesome, and mod- 
erately nutritive. They are boiled while green, and may 
be preserved for winter use, by cutting them into pieces 
and laying them down in salt. They will make their 
own brine, and must be kept covered by it, or they will 
spoil. Cook in two waters to extract the salt. The Lima 
beans, and the snaps also, when full grown, are shelled, 
and may be preserved for winter use, and afford in pro- 
portion to their weight, more nutrition than most other 
vegetables. Wheat contains but 74 per cent, of nutritive 
matter, while kidney beans contain 84 per cent. They 
abound in the constituents that produce muscle and fat, 
and will supply better than most vegetables the place of 
animal food. Gather them in their green state when full 
grown, and dry them carefull}' in the sun. They are bet- 
ter gathered thus than if delayed until ripe, and are also 
free from bugs. Soak them over night before being 
boiled. They can also be laid down with layers of salt 
like snap-beans. They are very good gathered when ripe, 
and dried carefully in an oven in order to keep them free 
from insects, which, at the South, are quite destructive. 
Snap-beans are also pickled, while young, in the same 
way as cucumbers. 

Marketing. — The beans must be picked wmen the dew 
is dried off the pods, so that there will be as small amount 
of moisture present in the packages as possible. And in- 
asmuch as there will be more or less shrinking, the beans 
are exposed to the air in the packing house an hour or 
more, so that the packages will be full when they reach 
their destination. An ordinary vegetable crate is used 
in which the beans are regularly laid and well shaken 
down in order that the packing will be firm. 



284 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

BEET (Beta vulgaris, and B. Cicla.) 

The Common Beet (Beta vulgaris) is a biennial plant, a 
Dative of the sea coasts of the south of Europe, and is said 
to have been cultivated for its beautiful red roots long 
before its edible properties were discovered. 

It was introduced into England by Tradescant, in the 
year 1050. Its name is said to come from the resemblance 
of its seed to the letter Beta, of the Greek alphabet. 

The best varieties are the following: 

Extra Early Turnip, or Bassano Beet. — The root is 
oval; color, pale red. Downing truly says "it is the 
sweetest, most tender, and delicate of all beets ,, ; but the 
color boils out, so that it is not as beautiful as some 
others; yet it is the best early beet and one of the easiest 
grown. 

Extra Early Egyptian Beet. — This was a great 
favorite among market gardeners several years since. It 
is of fair quality, flat in shape; of a deep red color, and a 
small top. It soon loses its flavor and becomes woody. 

Early Eclipse Beet. — A smooth, round beet and of 
intense red color, with small top; fine grain, sweet, ami 
delicate flavor. The heavy crop it produces and its many 
fine qualities make this beet desirable for gardens. 

For later crops there are several varieties among the 
Blood turnip beets which yield excellent results. The 
following represent the best: 

Long Blood is the kind most grown for winter use. It 
grows a foot or more in length, and four or five inches in 
diameter, mostly beneath the earth. It is a good keeper 
and very sweet. 

Early Long Blood resembles this; but about half the 
root is above ground, and if not gathered and stored 
early, is more exposed to injury from frost. 

Besides the above, a few other varieties are grown in 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



285 



portions of the South, and are strongly recommended by 
gardeners because of certain desirable qualities. One of 
the best of these is 

Lentz Beet. — Early with dark blood-red flesh; tender 
and sweet. 

The beet has been grown extensively in this country 
and abroad for the sugar it contains. A large proportion 




m&m 



k. «• 



Fig. 106— Klein Wanzleben. 
Sugar Beet. 



Fig. 107 — Mammoth Prize 
Long Red Beet (Manzel-Wurzel). 



of the sugar of the markets of the world now is produced 
from certain varieties of the common garden plant, which 
have been carefully improved by selection and culture, 
until pure strains have been produced and well estab- 



286 GAKDEXIXG FOE THE SOUTH. 

lished. The external form and color of the beet indicate 
these distinguishing characteristics. The fine flavor of 
these sugar beets also make them excellent for table use. 
The two varieties generally cultivated in this country are 
Klein Wanzleben and Vilmorin Improved. 

Culture. — The beet, being a native of the sea-shore, 
abounds in soda, which can be supplied, when deficient, 
by an application of common salt the autumn before 
planting. This, and leached or unleached ashes, will 
afford nearly all the inorganic elements of the crop. A 
top dressing of nitrate of soda is excellent. But care 
must be taken not to let the chemical come in contact 
with the foliage. 

The main summer crop of beets should be planted when 
the peach and plum are in full blossom. A few Bas- 
sano or Early Turnip should be planted a few weeks 
earlier, and of other kinds successive beds may be made 
whenever the soil is in a suitable state, from January 
until the summer droughts come on. Advantage should 
be taken of the rains that usually occur about the last of 
July, or early in August, to put iu a crop for winter. This 
crop should be put in earlier the farther northward the 
locality. At New York, the maiu crop is planted as early 
as the middle of June, about three and a half months be- 
fore killing frosts. This last planting often proves a 
failure in the dry autumns of a Southern climate. It 
generally will succeed in rich, fine soil. 

When the surface soil is rich and the bottom poor, it 
will be difficult to make the beet, carrot, and other tap- 
rooted plants produce fine, smooth roots. This difficulty 
will cease if the ground be deeply and thoroughly worked, 
mingling the soil and making it uniform throughout, and 
taking care to place at the depth of one foot below the 
surface a layer of good manure. 

The best beets grow in sandy bottom lands, but any soil 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 287 

will answer for them if deeply and thoroughly worked 
and well manured. This is necessary with all tap-rooted 
plants, and especially with the beet. Beet seed is some- 
what slow in vegetating, and the later sowings may be 
soaked in water twenty-four hours before planting, and 
the drills well watered upon the seed, which is then cov- 
ered with light soil pressed gently upon the seed — a good 
method of planting all summer crops. Make the beds 
four or four and a half feet wide, for convenience of culti- 
vating; spade them up at least a foot deep — eighteen 
inches is still better; mix in a good supply of well-rotted 
manure throughout, if the ground requires it. Rake the 
ground even and smooth, and mark out the rows twelve 
inches apart across the bed; draw the drills an inch and a 
half or two inches deep, in which drop the seed two inches 
apart, and press the earth gently upon it. When the 
plants are up, thin them to eight or nine inches apart, fill 
any vacancies by transplanting, and keep the ground 
around them loose and free from weeds until matured. 

In planting crops of beets, carrots, and parsnips, partic- 
ularly the two latter, sprinkle a few radish seeds, if you 
like, and the ground is rich, in the rows to distinguish 
them. The radishes will be up in a week, and the ground 
can be hoed or weeded without any danger of destroying 
the young plants. Drills can also be made betw T een every 
two rows of beets, making a drill every six inches, which 
can also be sown with radishes or lettuce plants, which 
ran thus be grown abundantly between other crops with- 
out loss of room. But a rich soil is required to bring- 
forward both crops to perfection. 

For early beets it is well to prepare a good bed under 
glass in which the rows should be marked out a foot 
apart. The ground should be deeply spaded and thor- 
oughly manured. Mark out your rows for the beets, and 
between the first two draw a drill in which you can sow 



288 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

your Early York cabbage; between the next two you can 
raise all the Butter-lettuce you wish to set out for head- 
ing. In the rows of beets themselves, you may sprinkle 
a few radish seed; then a row of later head-lettuce, to- 
matoes, egg plant, peppers, etc. The drills retained for 
the beets should be sown in this climate with the Bassano 
beet about the tenth of January. By the time the hard 
frosts are over, the beets, cabbages, etc., will be lit to 
transplant. Thin out to six inches apart, planting out 
those pulled up in the open ground. In transplanting the 
beet, a deep hole should be made with a dibble, and the 
root not bent. Those that remain in the bed will soon 
come into use, and by the time they are gone, the trans- 
planted ones will come on for a succession. 

The winter crop should be secured as soon as the first 
killing frosts occur, as the sweetness is lost by remaining 
in the soil. The roots should be taken up, dried a little, 
and stored away in casks with layers of dry sand, where 
they will keep in good condition until spring. The mangel 
wurzel beet is much cultivated in some countries for 
feeding stock, and is very good for the table when young 
and tender, but in our long season it loses its sweetness 
before winter. Here the sweet potato, rutabaga, and 
other turnips are more promising. 

The Swiss Chard, or White Beet (Beta Cicla), is also 
called the Sea Kale Beet. There are two varieties — the 
white and the green — which receive their names from the 
color of the foot-stalks of the leaves. Either of these is 
good. The plant very much resembles the common beet, 
but the leaves and their stalks are much larger, thicker, 
more tender and succulent, and less capable of resisting 
frost. 

The root of this plant is small, coarse,. and of no value; 
only the leaves and their stalks are employed, especially 
the latter, which are cooked and eaten as asparagus. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



289 



The culture is exactly the same as the common beet, 
except the plants should be twelve or more inches apart. 
The soil may be richer and not so deep, and the plants 
are more benefited by copious watering, especially wilh 
liquid -manure. For winter use, 
the leaves may be covered with 
litter. They will afford blanched 
leaf stalks all winter. If the soil 
be moist and kept mellow and 
free from weeds, it will yield 
bountifully. Salt is a beneficial 
manure for this crop, applied 
while preparing- the ground, as 
it keeps it moist. It is singular 
that a plant of so easy culture, 
and yielding during the entire 
season after May a supply of the 
most delicate greens, has not 
come into more general cultiva- 
tion 

For Seed. — Select a few of the 
finest-looking roots — those 
smooth and well shaped. Plant 
the different varieties as far 
apart as possible; indeed, it is 
better to save the seed of only 
one kind the same year for fear 
of intermixture .and degeneracy. 
Keep them free from weeds, and 
lie the seed stalks to stakes to 
support them. Gather and dry the seed as soon as ripe, 
and put away in paper bags. Keep dry, and they will be 
good for ten years. 

Use. — The young and tender tops of the common beet, 
and the leaves and stalks of the chards, are boiled as sum- 

19 




Fig. 108— Swiss Chard. 



290 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

nier greens, or of the latter the midrib and stalk may be 
peeled and boiled separately from the rest of the leaf, 
and prepared as asparagus, for which they are an excel- 
lent substitute. In gathering, the largest outside leaves 
should first be taken, and the inner ones left to increase 
in size, taking care to gather them while still perfectly 
green and vigorous. 

When common beets are thinned, the young beets 
pulled up, if cooked, tops and bottoms, are very sweet and 
delicate. When well grown, the roots give an agreeable 
variety to our table vegetables, being tender, sweet, and 
considerably nourishing. They also make an excellent 
pickle. If eaten moderately, they are wholesome, but in 
too large a quantity produce flatulence and indigestion. 

Marketing. — The roots are pulled when not quite 
grown, at a period when they are crisp and tender. The 
tops are cut off about two inches from the root, because 
if cut too close the beet will lose much of the moisture 
before it reaches the market, and its quality w T ill be 
greatly impaired. With some gardeners the practice is 
to tie four of the roots together in a bundle and thus ship 
to market the first three weeks, but as the season ad- 
vances the beets vary in size, and then the bunching is 
discontinued, and the roots are packed in well-ventilated 
barrels or bushel baskets. 

BORECOLE. — ( Brasxica oleracea . fimbriata.) 

This plant, known also as Kale and German Greens, is 
the easiest cultivated, and one of the most valuable of the 
cabbag? tribe. It has large curled or wrinkled leaves, 
forming an open head, and such a hardy constitution that 
it resists the severest frosts, which serve only to improve 
it. It remains green and eatable all winter without the 
least protection at the South, and in the Northern States 
requires only a slight covering. The best varieties are: 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 291 

Early Curled Siberian, or Dwarf German Greens. 
Beautifully curled, and known in some sections as Blue 
Curled Kale. Very hardy and makes excellent greens for 
winter and spring use. 

Dwarf Green Curled Scotch is a fine winter kale, 
and is superior for home use. After frost the leaves be- 
come very tender, and produce greens of fine flavor. The 
plants grow from two to two and a half feet high, with 
an abundance of beautifully curled leaves. 

Culture. — Raised from seed, like the rest of the cabbage 
tribe, which may be sown in April with the winter cab- 
bages and treated in the same manner. Transplant, if the 
Dwarf Green Curled, into rows eighteen inches apart and 
twelve inches in a row. Give it a good soil. The other 
sorts require about the same space as winter cabbages. 
Borecole may be sown as late as the middle of August in 
the place where it is to remain, and managed like the 
rutabaga turnip. Like the cabbage, it is visited by the 
aphis or cabbage-louse, and caterpillar. 

Seed. — Manage some of the best plants as cabbage. 

Use. — The outside leaves can be cut off for use when 
from seven to nine inches long, but they will be coarse 
and rank until mellowed by frost. The better way is after 
frost to cut off the hearts, not square across, but with a 
sloping cut, in order to throw off the rain, and the stem 
which is left will throw up fresh sprouts for a succession. 
For winter and spring greens this vegetable is nearly 
equal to the Savoy cabbage, after the frost has rendered 
it sweet and tender. 

Marketing. — Barrels, well ventilated, are used for 
shipping this vegetable to market. The kale is cut when 
the leaves are seven to nine inches long, and securely 
packed, so the barrel will remain full when it reaches its 
destination. 



292 GAKDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

BROCCOLI. — (Brassica oleracea, var. Botrytis asparagoides.) 

This is a cultivated variety of the cabbage resembling 
cauliflower, from which it differs in its undulating leaves, 
its larger size, and the color of some of its varieties. 

It is supposed to have originated from the cauliflower; 
it is a hardier plant, but not so delicate in flavor. It has 
been cultivated about two hundred years, and was intro- 
duced into England from Italy. Broccoli is raised more 
easily than cauliflower. The Early Purple Cape broccoli, 
producing large, brownish heads, very close and compact, 
is the best of over forty sorts. 

It requires the same special manures as cabbage and 
cauliflower, and for cultivation sow, transplant, and man- 
age like late cauliflower. To protect from insects see 
Cabbage. 

Use. — The same as cauliflower, to which it is inferior, 
and where that succeeds will hardly be worthy of culture. 

Marketing. — Cut off most of the leaves around the 
head and pack in vegetable crates. 

BRUSSELS SPROUTS. 
(Brassica oleracea, var. bullata gemmifera.) 

This plant is a hardy variety of the Savoy cabbage, 
producing an elongated stem, often four feet high and 
crowned with leaves similar to the Savoy. Small, green 
heads like cabbages spring from the axils of the stem 
leaves, which, dropping off, leave the little heads ar- 
ranged spirally around the stem as the plant proceeds in 
growth. Brussels Sprouts are raised from seed, which 
may be sown in April. Set the plants in rows two feet 
by one and a half feet apart, and treat in all respects as 
directed for winter cabbage. Cut off the leaves at the 
top of the stem some ten days or a fortnight before the 
little heads are gathered, and use for greens. 

It will stand the winters without protection south of 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



293 



Virginia, but the product is rather small, and the plants 
are very subject to the aphis during the winter. 

The Best French or Roseberry is the variety gen- 
erally planted in the South. 

For Seed. — Cut off the top of the stem and permit the 
flower stalks to spring from the little heads only. Keep 
at a distance from all the other 
varieties of Brassica, in order to 
have pure seed. 

( vr. — The top boiled for win- 
ter greens is very delicate in 
flavor and similar to the Savoy. 
But the little sprouts after they 
have boon touched with frost, 
which very much improves them, 
are the parts most used. The 
sprouts are fit for use all winter. 

Marketing. — See Borecole. 

CABBAGE. 

(Brassica oleracca. var. capitata.) 

This is a Cruciferous biennial 
plant, quite hardy, found wild 
on the coasts of England, 
France, and many other parts 
of Europe. The wild variety is known as Sea Cole- 
wort, bears but a few leaves, and is far from palatable, 
unless boiled in two waters to remove its saltness. The 
cultivated variety was probably introduced into England 
by the Romans, and the common name doubtless comes 
from the Latin Caput, or head. This is one of the most 
useful crops in cultivation. Cabbages are eatable almost 
from the time they leave the seed-bed until they have 
acquired a hard, close head; and they can be raised on 




Fig. 109 — Brussels Sprouts. 



294 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



every bit of otherwise idle ground. They can be planted 
between beds and rows of anything and everything, 
to be eaten as greens when young, or left to head on the 
coming off of other crops, and if there should be a super- 
abundance above the wants of the family, nothing is 
better for the cow and the pig. When the seed are care- 
full}' selected and the strains are preserved, the American 
seeds are superior to the imported, and produce finer and 
larger heads. No seed for late cabbage is better than our 
own, if saved from fine, large heads. But all the late 
cabbages in hot climates, without proper care, are prone 
to run into coleworts or " collards." 
The best varieties are as follows: 

Early Jersey Wakefield. — This cabbage has taken 
the place in recent years of the Early York, which for 




Fig. 110— Early Jersey Wakefield Cabbage. 

many years was the best for the earliest crop. The Wake- 
field is a conical headed cabbage, and the outside foliage 
permits of close planting, so that a large crop may be 
produced from an acre of ground. There is a larger 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



295 



headed variety of the Wakefield called Large Early, or 
Charleston Wakefield, but rather later in maturing. 

Early Winnigstadt. — {Stem dwarf, head large, broad 
at the base, sharply conical, heart firm, boiling tender; 
sown late, it proves a good winter cabbage; adapted to 




Fig. Ill— Matchless Late Flat Dutch Cabbage. 



sandy soils; about three weeks later than the early 
varieties. 

Henderson's Early Summer. — This cabbage comes in 
just after the Wakefield, and its large, well-shaped head 
stands the summer's heat finely. 

Early Flat Dutch. — This is an old standard variety 
and well suited to Southern portions of the country, be- 



296 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

cause it has considerable heat resisting properties. The 
heads are flat on top, and of large, uniform size. 

All Seasons. — This cabbage is good for fall, winter 
and summer planting. The heads are large, and come 
into use nearly as early as the Early Summer. 

Express. — Four or Ave days earlier than the Jersey 
Wakefield. The heads are exceedingly firm and well 
shaped. 

Early Drumhead. — The heads are large and firm, and 
withstand the heat admirably, thus making it a popular 
cabbage in many sections of the South. It matures about 
ten days later than the Wakefield, and is therefore an 
excellent cabbage to follow that variety, especially the 
Charleston Wakefield. 

Large Early York. — Is robust, bears the heat well, 
and will often continue in eating all summer. 

Fottler's Improved Brunswick and Succession are 
fine plants and much alike. 

For late cabbages the following are well suited to the 
South: 

Premium Flat Dutch. 

Large Late Drumhead. 

Red Dutch is used principally for pickling, and should 
be sown at the same time with the drumheads. 

SAVOY CABBAGES.— (B. oleracea, var. bullata-major.) 
These differ from the preceding in their wrinkled 
leaves. The varieties are hardy, being rendered more 
sweet and tender by frost. The only two worthy of cul- 
ture are: 

Curled Savoy. — An excellent winter variety, much 
improved in sweetness and tenderness by frost. It does 
not head firmly, but is very fine flavored, and even the 
outside leaves are tender and palatable. 

Drumhead Savoy is almost as large and firm as the 



VEGETABLES DESCUll'TION AXD CULTURE. 



297 



drumhead cabbage, and keeps very well. The head is 
round, flattened at top. It is nearly as delicate as the 
curled variety. 

The Savoys are not as certain a crop as the other cab- 
bages, but far superior in delicacy. They are nearly equal 
to cauliflowers. 

Culture. — An analysis of different varieties of the cab- 
bage shows them all to contain a very large proportion of 



jfti <%£3SSk 







c/ 



Fig 112— Savoy Cabbage. 



nitrogen; after evaporating the water, drumhead cabbage 
gives of nitrogen 17.899 parts in a hundred ; Savoy, 20.703; 
red, 10.212; turnip-rooted, 19.052. We also find this plant 
remarkably rich in phosphorus and sulphur; hence its un- 
pleasant smell in decay, like that of animal matter. It 
abounds also in soda and potash. Hence, common salt, to 
yield soda and chlorine, wood ashes for potash, bone for 
phosphoric acid, and gypsum, to add sulphur and lime, 
together with a soil saturated with manure of animals, 
especially the liquid excretion, all come in play in making 



298 



GAKDEMiNG FOR THE SOUTH. 



fine cabbages. Frequent stirring of the soil will also rob 
the atmosphere of its ammonia for the same purpose. 

The genus to which the cabbage belongs (Brassica) 
embraces also the Turnip, Borecole, Broccoli, Cauliflower, 
Brussels Sprouts, etc., and the following observations 
apply to the whole of them. 

For the seed-bed the soil should be a moist loam, but 
more dry in the case of plants which are to stand the 
winter. For final production most plants of this genus 
like a fresh, very rich, moderately clayey loam. A moist, 
cool bottom suits them admirably; such of them as are to 
stand the winter in the open ground should be grown in 
a lighter soil, not over rich. Good, well-decomposed 
stable manure is usually employed in preparing the soil 
for this genus. Pure hog manure is by some considered 
objectionable, as it is said to cause any of the cabbage 
tribe to become clump-rooted and lose their regularity 
of shape. A plentiful application of salt the autumn 
before planting, say at the rate of eight or ten bushels 
per acre, is very beneficial to this tribe, as it destroys 
the cut-worm and keeps the soil moist and cool. Bone- 
dust, and especially super-phosphate of lime, has a very 
surprising effect upon them, far more than analysis 
would lead one to suppose. 

The ground is advantageously dug twice the depth of a 
spade, and should be well pulverized by the operation. 
All of the cabbage tribe are particularly benefited by fre- 
quent and deep cultivation; they especially like to have 
the soil about them thoroughly worked while flic dew is 
on them. There will be a very great difference in the 
growth of two plots of cabbages treated alike in other 
respects, one of which shall be hoed at sunrise, and the 
other at midday; the growth of the former will surpris- 
ingly exceed that of the latter. But the cabbage tribe 
cannot be hoed too much for their benefit even if daily. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 299 

The situation must be open and free from all shade or 
drip of trees; if shaded from the midday sun, it is an 
advantage, but it must not be by trees. In the shade of 
trees and other confined situations, they are much more 
subject to be infested with caterpillars, and to grow 
weak and spindling. In planting out, all that have 
knotted or clumped roots should be rejected. 

Cabbage seed may be sown early in September or 
October in the open ground, watering in the evening 
when dry, as it usually is this month. The seed should 
be sown in drills, six inches apart, and one inch deep, 
and the ground deeply dug; water the drills before 
covering the seed, unless the ground is moist. Cover with 
fine, rich soil, pressed lightly upon the seed. The plants 
will appear in about a week. When large enough to 
transplant, thej can be set very thick in a cold frame or 
box, to stand over the winter. Cover over with glass, or 
boards if you have not glass, during severe weather, but 
give air every mild day, and set out when the weather 
grows mild in the spring. 

From Washington southwards, a still better way than 
putting the plants in a frame, is to throw a piece of 
ground into high ridges, two feet apart, running east and 
west. On the south side of these ridges set out the plants 
a foot apart, so that they will be shielded from the cold 
north winds, and enjoy the full warmth of the sun. Plant 
on the sides of the ridges and not in the trench. When 
the weather grows severe in December, cover slightly 
with straw or litter; remove it when mild weather re- 
turns, and cultivate as usual, gradually levelling the 
ridges, and you will have cabbages earlier than by any 
other mode. The ground should be good. If you raise 
your plants in the cold frame, they will be ready to trans- 
plant from the 20th to the last of February. They will 
be verv liable to be eaten off bv the cutworm when trans- 



LDEHERG FOK THE SOUTH. 

planted. There are two modes of preventing this. The 
best method is to sow the ground intended for cabbage, 
the autumn after being spaded up, with salt at the rate 
of eight bushels per aire. If you have not already sown 
your cabbage plot with salt, there is another plan to keep 
oft' the cutworm, equally successful. Throw your ground 
into ridges and trenches sixteen inches apart: let these 
trenches be at least six inches deep. In the bottom of 
these transplant your cabbages, one foot apart. Some 
use a dibble, but a trowel is much better, as it does not 
leave the soil hard. Prepare your ground in dry weather, 
but choose a moist day for transplanting. It is a g 
plan to wet the roots before planting out. When they 
get rooted, stir the soil gently about them, but do not till 
up the trenches until the plants are so large that there is 
no danger of the worm. This method of protecting cab- 
bages was pointed out to me by a negro gardener several 
years since, and I have tried it repeatedly. Tin- worm 
will not go down into the trenches t<> - the plants. 

Mr. Weed, entomologist of the Mississippi Experiment 
Station. makt s an excellent suggestion for destroying the 
Harlequin or terrapin bug. He recommends the planting 
of mustard between tie- rows of cabbage. The bugs will 
gather on the mustard in preference to the cabbage, and 
the plants can be pulled up and burned, or the mustard 
may be sprayed with pure kerosene. 

When the plants _ strong the ground should 
deeply and repeatedly hoed. P<> this while the dew is 
on. and retain its ammonia in the soil. The cabbage is 
partial to moisture, so hoe it frequently, and when you go 
out in the morning, you will find the plot moist with 
while the unstirred soil around is dry as ever. The only 
- ret in raising early cabbage is. set your plants in rich 
_ and and stir the soil. On poor ground tand even on 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION A.ND CUT/TUBE. 

rich, if half tended) they will run iiito collards. Stir the 
soil, and less manure is required. 

If the fall sawing has been neglected, sow the seeds in 
January or early in February in a cold frame, as directed 
in the article on the Beet; or they may he sown in the 
open ground when the heavy frosts that freeze the soil are 
over, ii 11 1 1 revered with litter, if protection is needed 
against unseasonable frosts, to be removed when the 
danger is over. Transplant and cultivate as above. 

For the middle crop to last through the summer, the 
seed can be sewn as above, or at any time until the middle 
of April. The cultivation is the same, except that the 
plants should be set about sixteen to eighteen iuches 
apart. The varieties will not head unless the ground be 
rich, rather moist, and, above all. diligently worked. 

Sow the late crop about the tirst of April. It is sown 
the first of May near New York. but. sown at that season 
in the South, it is not certain to come up. If seed of any 
of the cabbage tribe be sown after the weather glows 
warm, it must be watered in the drill, or covered with 
rich, fresh earth, which must be pressed upon it by walk- 
ing on a board, and it must be shaded by a covering of 
boards or pine brush during the day. removing it at night, 
until the plants get a little established. If the weather is 
warm and wet. the covering may be dispensed with They 
should not be transplanted until July or August. Let 
the ground be well spaded, and thoroughly manured. The 
plants must be set in tin ground up to thi first l<vf, no matter 
hotc long the stem may be, or they will not head. They also 
require a rich soil, but not from fresh manure. The 
manure for the cabbage crop should be thoroughly de- 
composed, or the plants will be covered with aphides or 
cabbage lice. The best way is t<> throw the ground into 
ridges from two to two and a half feet apart, making the 
trenches between more or less deep, according to the 



302 GARDENING FOE, THE SOUTH. 

length of the stems; wet the roots thoroughly, and trans- 
plant in moist weather, doing it carefully with a trowel, 
and when the ground gets dry, draw the earth level, 
which should just reach up to the lower leaves, not all at 
once, but gradually. If you have not late plants, sow 
large Yorks or Winnigstadts, in July here, or June north- 
ward, and good heads of a smaller size can be produced. 

The soil for cabbages cannot be made too rich. The 
plants demand a large supply of nitrogenous manure. 
The application of lime once in five years will repay the 
gardener. 

After the late cabbages are transplanted, let them be 
well cultivated by deep and frequent hoeing, and do not 
strip off the lower leaves if you wish them to head. 

To Preserve Cabbage. — Heel them up to their lower 
leaves in a dry situation, on the north side of a fence or 
building, and cover slightly with plank, straw, or pine 
brush, to keep them from freezing and thawing during 
the winter. It is not the frost, however, but the sun upon 
them, while frozen, that does the injury. In Virginia and 
northward, dig a trench on a gentle slope, and lay two or 
three bean poles in the bottom ; on these, beginning at the 
upper end, lay the cabbages, head downward, a little 
sloping, so that the water may run out from the heads. 
Cover now with earth a few inches thick, forming a sharp 
ridge about their roots, which should be made firm by 
treading or beating. Begin at the lower end and dig out 
as wanted for use. 

Seed. — Set out some of the best heads in the spring at 
a distance from turnips and all other members of this 
family, or they will intermix. Of the late varieties, home- 
grown seed, if pure, is the best. Support the stems as 
they rise by stakes, and gather the seed before it scatters. 
Seed will keep four years. 

Use. — Cabbage, as an article of food, is not so remark- 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 303 

able for its fattening properties as for its power of supply- 
ing strength for labor by producing muscle and bone, 
which it owes to its richness in blood-forming material, 
abounding in nitrogen, phosphates, and sulphur. Hence 
it is very nutritious for, and much relished, by laboring 
people in all parts of the world, but is apt to disagree 
with those of quiet and sedentary habits. With the latter 
it is more wholesome and digestible if eaten uncooked. Many 
persons can eat kk cold slaw " with impunity that are 
unable to use boiled cabbage without great inconven- 
ience. It is by many much relished when made into sauer- 
kraut. It is also pickled. 

Marketing. — In gathering the cabbage care must be 
exercised in the selection of those which give firm heads. 
Most of the outer leaves are taken off, just a few being 
left to prevent the head bruising in transportation; the 
stem is also cut off close. Barrels are generally used in 
shipping with stout cloth tied over the end and several 
holes cut in the sides to give sufficient ventilation. The 
cabbage should be packed strong and securely in the bar- 
rels, using considerable force, so that there will be no 
displacement in transit, and the chances for bruising will 
be reduced to a minimum. It is unwise to pack different 
varieties in the same barrel; separate the varieties as 
well as assort the sizes and better prices w T ill result when 
the shipment reaches market. Crates are used in some 
sections of the South for sending cabbage to the market, 
but they do not seem to give as good satisfaction as do 
the barrels. 

CARROT.— (Daucus Carota.) 

The carrot is a hardy, umbelliferous biennial, found 
wild in Great Britain, as well as in this country, growing 
in sandy soil or by road-sides. The root of the wild plant 
is small, white, dry, woody, and strong flavored; while 



304 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



that of the cultivated variety is large, succulent, and 
generally of a reddish yellow or pale straw color. The 
cultivated carrot is, however, thought to have been 
brought into Europe from the island 
of Crete, where it was early culti- 
vated. It was carried to England by 
Flemish refugees in the days of 
Elizabeth, and the leaves were 
thought beautiful enough to be used 
in ladies' headdresses. Cultivation 
has changed a wild, worthless plant 
into a most nutritious root. 

M. Vilmorin, of Paris, has done 
the same in our day, and from the 
wild plant by selecting seed, in three 
generations produced roots as large 
as the best garden carrots, the flavor 
of which, by most of those who have 
tasted them, is considered superior 
to the old varieties. (Bon Jardinier.) 
The best varieties for the garden 
are: 

Early Horn, which is very early, 
high colored, and sweeter than other 
varieties. It does not grow very long, 
and may be known by its conical root 
shortening abruptly to a point. It 
will grow closer together, and is bet- 
Fig. 113— Rubicon Half ter on shallow soils than other kinds, 

Long Orange Carrot. except 

Early French Short Horn, which is an earlier and 
superior variety of the above, and for an early crop the 
best. 

Altringham. — Color, bright red, and growing with the 
top an inch or two above ground, which sometimes 




VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUKE. 305 

freezes in very severe winters, if left in the ground, as is 
usual with this crop in Southern gardens. Of excellent 
quality. 

Long Orange. — Is paler in color, and of great length, 
the root not above the ground. It is next in quality to 
the above, and best for winter use where the crop is to be 
left in the ground. 

Half Long Dan vers. — Of good quality; thick root and 
very productive. One of the most popular kinds among 
gardeners. The color is bright orange. 

Analysis shows that lime, potash, soda, sulphuric acid, 
and chloride of sodium or salt abound in the ashes of this 
plant. The salt and lime mixture, composted with leaf- 
mould or swamp muck, a little plaster of Paris, bone-dust, 
and wood ashes, are the special manures needed. 

Culture. — Carrots like a light and fertile soil, dug full 
two spades deep for the long varieties, as they require a 
deeper soil than any other garden vegetables. The manure 
should be put as near the bottom as possible, not less 
than eighteen inches from the surface; but the soil should 
be fertilized by a previous crop, if fine, smooth roots are 
desired. 

In the Southern States carrots, for the early crop, may 
be sown in October or the first of November, and again 
from January to April inclusive, after which the seed 
comes up badly. At New York, the late crop is sown in 
June for winter use, and for the early crop they sow in 
September, and protect it a little with litter through the 
winter. 

Late-sown seed do not vegetate freely. Sow in drills 
fifteen inches apart; cover the seed half an inch deep with 
fine soil, and for the late crop, if the ground is dry, water 
the seed before covering, and after a few hours press the 
earth upon the seed with a roller or plank. Thin the 
young plants to six inches apart. In short, the culture 
20 



306 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

of the carrot is just that of the beet. Six hundred 
bushels have been produced from one acre. The car- 
rots need not be pulled at the South, but may be left 
safely in the ground to draw as wanted for use during the 
winter. In severe weather, they may be protected by a 
covering of litter; but it is hardly necessary, except for 
the Altringham. At the North, they are stored in cellars 
or in piles, covered with straw and earth, like the potato. 

For Seed, — Leave some of the finest roots, protected 
with litter, where raised, to blossom and seed the next 
summer; save only the principal umbels. Each head 
should be cut as it turns brown, dried in the shade, rub- 
bed out, and dried in paper bags. The seed will not vege- 
tate if more than two years old. 

Use. — The carrot is a very wholesome food for man or 
beast. It is a valuable addition to stews and soups, and 
is also boiled plain, pickled. Boiled or grated, it is an 
excellent poultice. The grated root is often added to 
cream to improve the color of winter butter. One carrot, 
grated into cold water, will color cream enough for eight 
pounds of butter, without any injury to the flavor. One 
bushel of boiled carrots and one of corn are said to be 
worth as much as two bushels of corn to feed to pigs. 
They are excellent for feeding horses and milch cows, and 
for this purpose are the most profitable of all roots in 
deep, fertile soils. 

Marketing. — The roots should be well washed and 
tied in bunches of six and neatly trimmed. Pack in crates 
securely to prevent movement in shipping and thus 
bruising. 

CAULIFLOWER. — (Brassira oleracca, var. botnjtis.) 

This plant is a biennial, and was introduced into Eng- 
land from the Island of Cyprus, in the early part of the 
seventeenth centurv. It is a kind of cabbage with long, 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 307 

pale-green leaves, surrounding a mass or head of white 
flower buds — in short, " a giant rose wrapped in a green 
surtout," but much more like a mass of fresh curds than 
a rose. Since its introduction, it has been much improved 
by the skill of the gardener. The seed is generally im- 
ported from Europe. 

There are several varieties, of which Early Erfurt and 
Snowball are the best. 

Cauliflower requires the same manures as cabbage. 
There is much less difficulty in its cultivation near the 
sea shore than inland. The ground should receive a dress- 
ing of common salt. 

Culture. — Cauliflowers are sown at two periods for the 
early and late crop. For the former sow early in Septem- 
ber thinly in drills six inches apart, in rich, light soil, and 
if the ground is too dry and hot, water the seed in the 
drill before covering; cover with fine, light soil, and shade 
with a mat until the seeds are just beginning to come up 
(not longer). When the plants are three inches high, in 
the colder localities, they are taken up carefully and pot- 
ted singly in small pots, three in a pot where the quart 
size is used. Instead of potting, they may be set out in 
a cold frame or pit four inches asunder, to remain until 
spring opens, giving them meanwhile all the air the 
weather will admit to harden them. They will stand light 
frosts without injury. As early as safe, remove the sashes 
entirely a few days, take thorn up from the bed with a 
transplanter with balls of earth, or, if in pots, divide the 
ball carefully if it contains more than one plant, and sot 
them out in very rich ground twenty by twenty-four 
inches apart, inserting their stems in the earth nearly to 
the first pair of leaves. Shield them with plant protectors 
from heavy frosts. 

In milder localities, as the coast and middle section of 
the more Southern States, the plants, when taken up, are 



308 GAEDENLNG FOR THE SOUTH. 

set out in rows where they are to remain, four inches 
apart in the row and the rows four feet apart; they are 
protected during frosts and heavy storms by hoops and 
mats, or by a covering of four planks a foot wide to each 
row. These are supported by rafter-like supports, every 
five or six feet, to which one of the planks is nailed on 
each side, while the others are movable and are taken off 
in all mild weather. The ends are closed with plank. 
Instead of plank, white cotton cloth, prepared with lin- 
seed oil, affords a suitable covering. They must have air 
and light at all times when practicable. Slugs must be 
watched, whether wintered thus or in a hot-bed. They 
may be driven off by sprinkling the soil and plants with 
quicklime. As early as may be safe in February, prepare 
the soil between the rows, which, during the winter, 
should have been protected from treading by a coat of 
leaves, or a few old plank, and plant another row therein 
with the plants twenty inches apart. Thin the plants that 
were wintered to twenty inches, taking them up with a 
transplanter, and plant out those not required for the in- 
termediate row in a plot prepared for the purpose. Shade 
a little with plant protectors until established, if there is 
danger of their flagging; afterwards cultivate them as 
cabbage. 

For the late crop sow in the manner above directed at 
the same time with winter cabbage, from April to July. 
An ounce of seed will yield three or four thousand plants. 
The seed-bed should be of light, rich soil, and when the 
plants are two or three inches high, they should be taken 
up and set out in a bed four inches apart, shading them 
until again established, or, if the weather is too dry and 
hot, thinned to that distance in the seed-bed. They should 
be taken up with balls of earth in a transplanter and 
planted out at the same time with winter cabbage, in 
rows twenty by twenty-four inches apart. Protect them 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 309 

from the cutworm and insects in the same manner. If 
possible, give them a plot of moist bottom soil, made very 
rich with well-decomposed manure. Water freely when 
needed, which, in dry weather, is every other day at least; 
if with liquid manure, so much the better. Let them 
never suffer from drought; they will show when they need 
water by their drooping leaves. Soapsuds is an excellent 
application. Keep the ground hoed thoroughly about 
them, especially the day after each watering, that it may 
not bak 

The hills should be hollowed about the cauliflower like 
a shallow basin, to retain moisture. The head may be 
blanched by bending the leaves and confining them 
loosely with a string. They will head in succession during 
the autumn. On protection from insects, see " Cabbage." 

When a cauliflower has reached its full size, which is 
shown by the border opening as if about to seed, the plant 
should be pulled, and if laid entire in this state in a cool 
place, may be kept several days. It should be pulled 
in the morning, for if gathered in the middle or evening 
of a hot day, it boils tough. When there is danger of 
severe frost injuring the cauliflowers that have not 
already headed, they may be protected by pine boughs or 
empty boxes or barrels where they stand, or pulled up 
with the earth attached to the roots, and removed to a 
cellar or out-building, where they will flower in succes- 
sion. In the low country this will hardly be necessary. 
The spring crop is, I believe, more certain in low sections. 

For Sad. — Set out, in spring, some of the finest heads, 
with fine, close flower-buds, and proceed as with cabbage. 
It is very liable to intermix with the other Brassicas; so 
that it is best to depend upon foreign seed. Seed will 
keep three or four years. 

Use. — The heads or flowers boiled, generally wrapped 
in a clean linen cloth, are served up as a most delicate 



310 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

dish. " Of all the flowers in the garden,'' says Dr. John- 
son, "give me the cauliflower." It is one of the very 
best of vegetable products, and so prized wherever 
known. It is nutritious and wholesome even for invalids, 
beside being a very ornamental addition to the table. 

To Cool\ — Cut off the green leaves, and look carefully 
that there are no caterpillars about the stalk; soak an 
hour in cold water, with a handful of salt in it; then boil 
them in milk and water, and take care to skim the sauce- 
pan, that not the least foulness may fall on the flower. It 
must be served up very white, Avith sauce, gravy, or 
melted butter. — Mrs. Hale. 

Marketing. — The cauliflowers are cut with two leaves 
left on each to fold over the tender heads to prevent 
bruising in shipping. Each head is wrapped in paper and 
carefully packed in bushel crates, with a sheet of brown 
paper between each layer. Thorough ventilation must be 
had in the package or spoiling will result before the 
market is reached. 

CELERY. — (Apium graveoJens.) 

Celery is a hardy, biennial. Umbelliferous plant, a 
native of Britain, where the wild variety, called Small- 
age — a coarse, rank weed with an unpleasant smell and 
taste — is found growing in low, marshy grounds, and by 
the sides of ditches. 

There are several varieties, some of which have hollow 
stalks. None but those which are solid are worthy of 
notice. Among the best are: 

White Plume. — An early form which has self-bleach- 
ing properties. It was first introduced in 1884, and has 
become quite a popular variety among some gardeners. 
It can be bleached without high banking. The objection 
made against this form is its poor keeping qualities. It 



VEGETABLES DESCL1PTICLN AXD CULTURE. 



311 



should not, therefore, be planted for a late winter crop. 
The plant is often of strong flavor, which is objectionable. 

Golden Self-Blanching. — This also requires com- 
paratively little banking, and produces crisp, large and 
solid plants of fine 
flavor. Very few 
plants are better 
adapted to garden 
culture. The flavor 
is excellent, of a 
rich, nutty cast. 
Well adapted for 
the " New Celery 
Culture " method. 

Golden Heart. 
In 1886 this was 
one of the most 
popular varieties, 
and it is still hold- 
ing a strong posi- 
tion with garden- 
ers. An excellent 
winter keeper. 

Giant Paschal. 
This is of French 
origin and is large, 
silver white, and 
very productive. It 
blanches quite readily, and retains its freshness a long 
time. The stalks are large, solid and fine flavored. The 
Giant Paschal is a selection from the Golden Self-Blanch- 
ing; has the qualities of the latter, but is a better keeper 
and is larger. 




Fig. 114 — Giant Paschal Celery. 




(312) 



Plate 3— Golden Self-Blanching Celery. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 313 

Giant White Solid. — This celery attains a height of 
three feet, and is well suited to the South, since it grows 
moderately well in a warm climate. 

Sandringham ok Incomparable. — Is an old variety of 
tine qualities. It has been cultivated for over thirty 
years. 

Culture. — The soil for fine celery must be rich in pot- 
ash, lime, phosphoric acid and chloride of potassium. But 
it will not do to depend upon special manures alone, with- 
out the addition to the soil of well-rotted animal manures. 

Celery flourishes best in a soil moist, friable, and rather 
inclining to lightness. It likes a cool, moist, but not 
wet soil. There are several modes of cultivation. The 
common mode is to sow the seed in April thinly in 
drills eight inches apart. As celery is a long while vege- 
tating in the open air, it is desirable to sow the earl}' crop 
under glass. Let the seed-bed be very rich, and if not 
sufficiently moist, sprinkle the drills well before covering, 
and cover thinly with light, sifted soil. Shade the bed 
on sunny days, and admit mild rains and warm dews, and 
keep all close in cool weather until the young plants make 
their appearance. Unless managed as directed for fine 
flower seeds, celery will not readily come up. Water 
must be given from a fine rosed pot if the soil is dry. 

The old way is to plant in trenches, a foot deep, well 
manured at the bottom, and to earth up gradually, as the 
plants make their growth. This plan is now abandoned 
by our best growers, and instead the method given by 
the well-known authority, Mr. Peter Henderson, in his 
valuable work called "Gardening for Profit," is adopted 
by mam 7 gardeners. There is also another method called 
the " Xew Celery Culture," which will be described 
further on. 

Celery may be planted any time from the middle of 
June to the middle of August; but the time we most 



314 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

prefer is during July, as there is but little gained by 
attempting it early. In fact I have often seen plants 
raised in hot-beds and planted out in June, far sur- 
passed both in size and quality by those raised in the 
open ground and planted a month later. As I have 
already said, it requires a cool, moist atmosphere, and 
it is nonsense to attempt to grow it early in our hot 
and dry climate; and even when grown, it is not a 
vegetable that is ever very palatable until cool weather. 
This experience well proves, for although a few bunches 
are exposed for sale in August and September, there is 
not one root sold then for a thousand that are sold in 
October and November. Celery is often grown as 
a " second crop " — that is, it follows after the spring- 
crop of beets, onions, cabbage, cauliflower, or peas, 
which are cleared off and marketed, at latest, by 
the middle of July; the ground is then thoroughly 
plowed and harrowed. No additional manure is used, 
as enough remains in the ground from the heavy coat 
it has received in the spring, to carry through the 
crop of celery. After the ground has been nicely pro- 
pared, lines are struck out on the level surface, three feet 
apart, and the plants set six inches apart in the rows. If 
the weather is dry at the time of planting, great care 
should be taken that the roots arc properly " firmed." 
Our custom is, to turn back on the row, and press by the 
side of each plant gently with the foot. This compacts 
the soil and partially excludes the air from the root until 
new rootlets are formed, which will usually be in forty- 
eight hours, after which all danger is over. This practice 
of pressing the soil closely around the roots is essential in 
planting of all kinds, and millions of plants are annually 
destroyed by its omission. After the planting of the 
celery is completed, nothing further is to be done for six 
or seven weeks, except running through between the rows 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



315 



with the cultivator or hoe, and freeing the plants of weeds 

until they get strong enough to crowd them down. This 

will bring us to about the middle of August, by which 

time we usually have that moist and cool atmosphere 

essential to Hie growth of celery. Then wo begin the 

" earthing up," necessary for blanching or whitening that 

which is wanted for use during the 

months of September, October, and 

November. The tirst operation is 

that of " handling," as we term it — 

that is, alter the soil has been drawn 

up against the plant with the hoe, 

it is further drawn close around each 

plant by the hand, firm enough to 

keep the leaves in an upright position 

and prevent them from spreading. 

This will leave them as shown in 

Figure 116. 




Fig. 115— Tying Up Celery. 

E. C. Green, of the Ohio Station, proposes the use of 
paper string to wind around the plants before banking 
up with earth, and the string is left on the plants since 
the moisture will soon so dampen it as to cause it to fall 
off as the celery grows. The great advantage in the use 
of string, as shown in Figure 115, consists in the fact that 
the earth is not allowed to enter the center of the plants 
while banking up, aud thus injure the quality of the 



310 



GARDENING FOR THE !?OTTTH. 



celery. The figure is self-explanatory. A tin can is tied 
to the wrist in which the cord of string is placed, and the 
end is fed through a hole in the bottom of the can. Care 
must be exercised not to bruise the plants while tying up, 
otherwise disease will set in and the crop will be ruined. 




The plants being placed in an upright position, more soil 
is drawn against the row (either by the plow or hoe, as 
circumstances require), so as to keep the plant in this 
position. The blanching process must, however, be 




Fig. 117 — Celery Earthed Up. 

finished by the spade, which is done by digging the soil 
from between the rows and banking it up clear to the top 
on each side of the row of celery, as in Figure 117. Three 
feet is ample distance between the dwarf varieties, but 



\ EGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 317 

when large sorts are used the width between the rows 
must be at least four and a half or live feet, which entails 
much more labor and loss of ground. For the past eight 
years I have grown none but the dwarf varieties, and have 
saved, in consequence, at least one-half in labor, and one- 
third in ground, while the average price per root in mar- 
ket has been always equal and occasionally higher than 
for the tall growing sorts. 

Home authorities recommend the use of 12-inch plank 
in bleaching celery, one placed on each side of the row, 
leaning against pegs, and with a few inches of earth 
throAvn up against the plank to hold it in position. It is 
claimed that with this method enough of the light is 
excluded from the stems of the plants to cause them to 
bleach. 

The preparation of the soil and planting of celery for 
winter use is the same in all respects, except that, what is 
intended for winter need never be " banked up " with the 
spade. It merely requires to be put through the handling 
process, to put it in a compact and upright position pre- 
paratory to being stowed away in winter quarters. This 
should not be done before the middle of September, or 
just long enough before the celery is dug up, to keep it 
in the upright position. 

We have, however, another method called the " new 
celery culture,"* which we have found to answer very 
well for the late crop, and it is one by which more roots 
can be grown on the same space and with less labor than 
by any other. The best results will be secured by culti- 
vating a self-bleaching variety, like the Golden Self- 



* It is of interest to note that in 1892 some writers on horticulture 
published an account of this method, and claimed the honor of the 
discovery, calling it the " new celery culture," when, as a matter of 
fact, this method was in use in 1868, at the time the second edition of this 
book was issued. 



318 GARDENING FOR THE bOUTH. 

Bleaching. It is simply to plant the celery one foot apart, 
each way, nothing farther being required after planting, 
except twice or thrice hoeing, to clear the crop of weeds 
until it grows enough to cover the ground. No handling 
or earthing up is required by this method, for, as the 
plants struggle for light, they naturally assume an up- 
right position, the leaves all assuming the perpendicular 
instead of the horizontal, which is the condition essential 
before being put in winter quarters. This method is not 
quite so general with us as planting in rows, and it is 
perhaps better adapted for private gardens than for mar- 




m 

."■/? .. .. , . 



Fig. 118— Old Method of Growing Celery in Trenches. (This 
is also used for winter storage. ) 

ket; as the plant is more excluded from the air, the root 
hardly attains as much thickness as by the other plan. 

The manner of preserving it during the winter is 
very simple, but as the knowledge of the process may 
not be well understood generally by market gardeners, 
I will endeavor to put it plain enough, so that my 
readers " may go and do likewise." In this locality 
we begin to dig up that which we intend for winter 
use about the end of October, and continue the work 
(always on dry days) until the 20th or 25th of Novem- 
ber, which is as late as we dare risk it out for fear of 
frost. Let it be understood that celery will stand quite 
a sharp frost — say 10 or even 15°, while 20 or 25° will 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 319 

destroy it. Hence experience has taught us, that the 
sharp frosts that we usually have during the early part of 
November, rarely hurt it, though often causing it to droop 
flat on the ground, until thawed out by the sun. It must, 
however, never be touched when in the frozen state, or it 
is almost certain to decay. The ground in which it is 
placed for winter use should be as dry as possible, or if 
not dry, so arranged that no water will remain in the 
trench. The trench should be dug as narrow as possible, 
not more than ten or twelve inches wide, and of the depth 
exactly of the height of the celery — that is, if the plant of 
the celery be two feet in length, the depth of the drain or 
trench should be two feet also. The celery is now placed 
in the trench as near perpendicular as possible, so as to 
till it up entirely, its green tops being on a level with the 
top of the trench. Figure US represents a section across 
a trench filled with celery in the manner just described. 
No earth whatever is put to the roots other than what 
may adhere to them after being dug up. It being closely 
packed together, there is moisture enough always at the 
bottom of the trench to keep this plant at the cool season 
of the year from wilting. That which is put in trenches 
about the 25th of October is usually ready to be taken up 
for use about the first of December, that which is put in a 
couple of weeks later, by the first of January, and the last 
(which we try always to defer to 15th or 20th November) 
may be used during the winter and until the first of April. 
For the first lot, no covering is required, but that for use 
during the winter months must be gradually covered up, 
from the middle of December, on until the first of Jan- 
uary, when it will require at least a foot of covering of 
some light, dry material — hay, straw, or leaves — the lat- 
ter perhaps the best. I have said the covering up should 
be gradual. This is very important, for if the full weight 
of covering is put on at once, it prevents the passing off 



320 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

of the heat generated by the closely packed mass of 
celery, and in consequence it to some extent " heats," and 
decay takes place. Covered up in this manner, it can be 
got out with ease, during the coldest weather in winter, 
and with perfect safety. These dates of operations, like 
all others named throughout, are for this latitude; the 
cultivator must use his judgment carefully in this matter 
to suit the section in which he is located. 

To Save Seed. — Leave some plants where grown; in the 
latter part of February take them carefully, cut off the 
outside leaves, and remove the side shoots, and plant 
them out. in moist soil, one foot apart. Select those which 
are solid and of middling size. Tie the seed-stalks to 
stakes, to preserve them from being broken off by violent 
winds. After the flowers open, while the seed is swelling, 
if dry weather occurs, water at least every other night. 
When the seed is dry, it may be rubbed out and stored in 
a dry place. They will keep good four years. 

Use. — Celery has some little nutriment, but is culti- 
vated chiefly as a luxury. The sweet, crisp stalks, used 
raw, with a little salt, form a most grateful salad. It is 
also used as a seasoning, and is a great improvement to 
soups and gravies. A few plants for this purpose are as 
necessary and wholesome as onions. The unblanched 
leaves and seeds are sometimes employed in flavoring. 

Marketing. — The celery must be placed on the market 
in a crisp and clean condition, free from all " stringiness," 
if good prices are desired. There seems to be no reason 
why this excellent vegetable should not be so successfully 
cultivated in the South as to compete with that grown at 
Kalamazoo. Soil, climate and other conditions are cer- 
tainty favorable, and there is the additional advantage 
over tin 1 Northern grower in the earliness of the Southern 
crop, thus permitting the truckers in the South to place 
their crop on the market several days ahead of those in 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 321 

the North. There is also a rapidly growing demand all 
over the South for this vegetable, and the home consump- 
tion, therefore, is not to be belittled. 

When the plants are taken from the field they are 
washed to rid them of all particles of earth, and the dead, 
discolored and green leaves are pulled off, the root is cut 
off close to the stalks, if intended for the local market. 
If the celery is to be shipped some distance the roots 
are left on and packed in a moist condition, so that the 
plants will be crisp and fresh when they reach their desti- 
nation. It is advisable to dip the plants in w r ater before 
packing to insure this condition. For the wholesale trade 
it is customary in some sections to tie the plants in 
bundles — twelve plants to the bundle. The shipping is 
done in crates, or barrels well ventilated. 

CELERIAC- — (Apium graveolens, var. rapaceum.) 

Celeriac, or Turnip-rooted Celery, is a variety of celery 
which forms at the base of its stem an irregular knob, 
which is the part used, either cooked or raw, in salads. 
The roots have been grown to three or four pounds 
weight. It is sweeter, but not so delicate as common 
celery, and is not much in use, except in climates so cold 
that the common sort cannot be easily preserved through 
the winter, while this can be stored like turnips. 

The young plants of celeriac are raised exactly like 
those of celery. When six inches high they are fit for final 
transplanting. Set them in rows two feet asunder, and 
eight inches apart in the rows upon the level ground, or 
in drills drawn with the hoe three inches deep, as they 
require but little earthing up. When arrived to nearly 
their full size, they must be covered over with earth to 
the depth of four inches. In dry weather they should be 
watered plentifully every evening, as they like even more 
water than celery. The only additional attention re- 
21 



322 



GARDENING FOR THE bOUTH. 



quired is to keep them free from weeds. The plant is 

more easily cultivated than celery. 

Saving Seeds. — The directions for celery are in every 

respect applicable to celeriac. 

Use. — The stalks are used for seasoning soups, etc., the 

same as celery, from which they can hardly be distin- 
guished. The roots are 
nice boiled tender, cut 
in slices and dressed 
like turnips. They are 
often made into a 
salad, after boiling 
them, and are used in 
seasoning soups or 
meat pies. 



CHIVES or CIVES. 
(Allium Schcenoprasum.) 

A hardy, perennial 
plant of the onion 
tribe, growing wild in 
the meadows of Bri- 
tain, as some varieties 
of the same genus do 
in this country. The 
bunches are made up 
of a mass of little 
bulbs, and produce 
pretty purplish flowers 
early in summer. 
Culture. — Any common soil w T ill answer. Divide the 
roots in autumn or spring, and plant them on a bed or 
border, in little bunches of ten or twelve offsets, in holes 
made with the dibble ten inches apart. If kept free from 
weeds, they will speedily make large bunches, a few of 




Fig. 119— Celeriac. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 323 

which will supply a large family. Cut the tops smoothly 
off near the surface, when wanted, and fresh ones will 
soon spring up. Chives make a very pretty edging for 
beds in winter and spring. Renew every four years by 
taking up and dividing the roots. 

Use. — It is an excellent substitute for young onions in 
winter and spring salading, and is also used like leeks 
and onions in seasoning soups, gravies, etc. The leaves, 
cut up fine and mixed with meal and water, are often fed 
to young chickens as a preventive of disease. The little 
bulbs may be taken up and stored, and are a tolerable 
substitute for small onions. 

CORN, SWEET OR SUGAR.— (Zea maize, var. saccliarata.) 

Indian corn, or maize, is a native plant, found dis- 
distributed in all the milder climates of America at its 
discovery. There are six varieties or classes recognized 
as belonging to the genus Zea, viz.: Sweet corn (sac- 
charata), Flint corn (indurata), Pop (everta), Dent corn 
(indentata), Soft corn (amylacea), Husk corn (vaginata). 

The cultivation of the sweet corn is not common in the 
South, for the reason that it is difficult to secure satisfac- 
tory crops with seeds obtained from the Northern seed- 
men. The boll-worm is also found to be very destructive 
to sweet corn, more so than it is with the field varieties 
of corn. If, however, seeds are carefully selected from 
the crops of two or three years' successive growths much 
more satisfactory results may be expected, from the fact 
that the plant becomes acclimated by this series of culti- 
vation and selection. The best garden varieties of sweet 
corn are as follows: 

Crosby's Extra Early. — The ears are rather small, 
but this is a productive variety; rich, sugary flavor; a 
dwarf form requiring a rich soil. This is one of the old 
standard varieties. 



324 GARDENING FOB, THE SOUTH. 

Stowell's Evergreen. — A general favorite among 
market gardeners because of its excellent qualities, 
adapted to home use and for shipping. The ears are large 
and remain longer in a green condition than is the case 
with most of the other varieties. The grains are large, 
but tender and sweet. 

Country Gentleman. — The cob is small and yields a 
deep grain of delightful flavor and sweetness. Three or 
four ears are generally produced on each stalk, and a 
well-matured ear is about eight inches long. This variety 
of corn closely resembles the Shoe Peg, introduced by 
Johnson & Stokes some years since, but it is larger than 
the Shoe Peg. 

Very early varieties are: Adams' Extra Early and 
Marblehead. 

Medium early varieties are: Nonesuch, Roslyn Hybrid, 
Triumph, Egyptian. 

The common Dent corn of the South better endures 
intense summer heat, and will supply green corn for the 
table when the preceding sorts fail from drought. It is 
less injured by the corn-worm, which cuts into the end of 
the ear, than Sweet or Sugar corn. 

Maize likes a soil abounding in soluble silica. Gypsum 
and ashes are the best special manures. Sweet corn has 
much less starch than the other varieties, but much more 
sugar and extract. It has also a greater portion of dex- 
trine and gum. 

Culture. — In the Northern States, a dry soil and a hot 
season are required to produce large crops of corn. At 
the South we raise far better crops in moist seasons, and 
on moist bottom lands. Rich, deep loam affords the plant 
plenty of moisture and nourishment, which the corn likes. 
The Extra Early and Sugar corn will bear thick planting. 
Plant the first crop in the open air when the peach is well 
in bloom, and every three weeks thereafter until July at 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



325 



New York, and until August in Georgia, selecting the 
early sorts for the first and last plantings. 

The early crop may be forwarded a month, by planting- 




Fig. 120— Sweet Corn. 

in boxes (or in pots under glass if only a few plants are 
desired). " Prepare boxes about four feet long, three feet 



326 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

wide, and five inches high. Make one of the sides so that 
it can be easily removed. Fill these boxes with loam 
mixed with some manure. Then prepare some strips of 
board two and one-third inches wide, five inches long, and 
as thin as the blade of a hoe. Put these down endwise 
into the loam, so as to divide the loam into squares two 
and one-half inches square and five inches deep. (As these 
squares are each to contain a hill of corn, it will be seen 
that the thin strips are to prevent the roots of one hill 
from interfering with those of another.) Place these 
boxes in a sunny place, well protected from the west 
wind, and about a month before the usual planting time, 
plant four kernels of corn in each one of these squares. 
By planting time, the corn will be five or six inches high. 
Having prepared the ground and opened the hills, take 
the hills of corn from the boxes in the hand, put them into 
the prepared hill, press the earth around them, and the 
corn is at once planted and hoed the first time. It would 
be well to use some phosphate of lime or hen manure, so 
as to cause the corn to start immediately. In a short 
time the corn will be as large as usual when hoed the 
second time." (New England Farmer.) 

Another and probably simpler method is in the use of 
what is known among gardeners as " dirt bands." These 
are thin veneers cut so as to fold up into 4 or 6-inch 
squares. 

The ground for corn should be deeply plowed or spaded, 
then laid off in hills three feet apart each way, for Sugar 
and Early corn, leaving three or four plants in a hill, 
while two plants in hills five feet apart is near enough for 
large Southern corn. If the ground is not rich, place a 
shovelful of decayed manure to each hill. Fresh dung 
can be immediately applied to corn, if spaded before plow- 
ing, and well turned in. Plant four or five grains to a 
hill, and cover two inches deep. When they are up, thin 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 327 

as above. Hoe deeply and often while young, and draw 
the earth each time a little about the stalk; but after the 
plant is six inches high, shallow surface culture, killing 
the weeds and loosening the surface without cutting the 
main roots, is all that is needed. 

Corn is a gross feeder, and cannot get too much manure. 
A sprinkling of guano about the hill is beneficial, if it 
does not touch the seed. Growth is much improved by 
giving the plants, at their first hoeing, a teaspoonful of 
gypsum to each hill, or a pint of ashes, or as much of the 
charcoal poudrette. Chickens, birds, and squirrels can be 
prevented from pulling up the corn by soaking it in water 
twelve hours before planting, then stirring the seed 
briskly in a vessel containing a little tar mixed with 
warm water; thus giving each grain a thin coat. After 
which, for convenient handling, it is to be rolled in as 
much ashes, gypsum, or lime as it will take up. One-half 
bushel of corn requires a pint of tar and a gallon of warm 
water, with as much ashes as will stick to the grain. It is 
effectual against birds, squirrels, etc., while the seed 
vegetates freely, if previously soaked. 

For Seeds. — Select the best ears from stalks that bear 
more than one. 

Use. — Indian corn is prepared in a greater variety of 
ways for the table than any other grain. In fact, the 
modes of preparation alone would almost fill a volume. 
That from the garden is mostly boiled green. Green corn 
can be very easily preserved for winter use, by cutting off 
the kernels after boiling, and drying in a shaded, airy 
place. Or, cut the corn off the cob, and put it in a stone 
jar, with a handful of salt to a pint of corn. When the jar 
is full, put a weight on it. When you wish to use it, re- 
move a little of the top, and wash and soak it over night. 
Sugar corn is the best for this purpose. 



328 GARDENING FOR THE »*OUTH. 

CORN SALAD.— ( YalerianeUa olitoria.) 
Corn Salad, Fetticus, or Lamb's Lettuce, is a small 
annual plant, a native of English wheat-fields. It has 
long, narrow leaves of a pale glaucous hue, and very 
small, pale-blue flowers. It has long been cultivated in 
English gardens as a winter and spring salad. There is 
also a round-leaved variety, with leaves thicker, and of a 
darker green. 

Culture. — Corn salad likes a loam of moderate fertility, 
not too heavy. It is raised from seed, one quarter of an 
ounce of which will sow a bed four feet by fifteen. Sow 
seed of the preceding year's growth, at intervals from 
August until frost, in drills six inches apart. Thin the 
plants as wanted for consumption to four inches in the 
drills, and keep free from weeds by frequent hoeing. 
Gather the leaves to eat while young, taking the outer 
ones, as with spinach. It will be fit for use all winter, 
wh^re the ground keeps open. A spring sowing may be 
m? r1 e among the earliest crops, put in for later use when 
desired. Allow some of the plants to shoot up to seed, 
which, as they shed easily, is shaken out upon a cloth 
spread under the plants. It keeps six years. 

Use. — It is used during winter and early spring to in- 
crease the variety of small salads, and as a substitute for 
lettuce. In France it is boiled like spinach. 

COWPEA.— ( Vigna Catjang. ) 

Several species are largely cultivated in most Southern 
climates, the vines of which are used for forage, and the 
seeds employed not only for stock feeding, but the finer 
kinds are used largely as substitutes for kidney beans as 
food for man. 

The cowpea is generally considered to be a field crop, 
and it would seem to have no place in a treatise of the 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 329 

character of this book, but its value iu restoring fertility 
to soils is so great that gardeners will find it a useful 
plant. It occupies a prominent position as a soil restorer 
from the fact that it has the property of drawing a large 
per cent, of nitrogen from the atmosphere and giviug it to 
the soil when the plants are turned under. The best 
varieties to use for green manuring are Black, Clay, Red 
Kipper, Unknown. Some of the varieties of cowpeas are 
also excellent for table use, viz. : Large lady, Small lady, 
Mush, Rice, Sugar and White Crowder. 

CRESS, AMERICAN.— (Barbarea vulgaris.) 

A biennial Cruciferous plant with yellow flowers, the 
radical leaves of which are lyre-shaped, and the upper 
ones pinnatifid, and cultivated in some gardens as a win- 
ter salad. Often called water-cress at the South. 

Sow either in drills or broadcast in a moist place, the 
last of August, September, or early in October, giving 
water in dry, hot weather. Let the plants remain six or 
eight inches apart. Preserve a few good plants for seed. 

Use. — It is generally liked as a winter or early spring 
salad, somewhat like the water-cress, but more bitter. 

The Winter Cress (B. proeco.r) resembles the foregoing, 
but is a perennial plant with larger leaves. The use and 
culture are the same. Less bitter than the former. 

CRESS, GARDEN. — (Lepidium sativum.) 
Cress, or Peppergrass as it is called, from its pungent 
taste, is a hardy Cruciferous annual, probably from Per- 
sia, and has been cultivated in England since 1548. 

There are three sorts, of which the common Curled and 
the Normandy are the best; the broad-leaved sort is 
coarse and inferior. 

Culture. — Cress likes a light, moist mould, and in sum- 
mer a shady border is to be preferred. It is propagated 



ooO GARDENING FOK THE .SOUTH. 

from seed, which, to keep up a succession of young and 
tender plants, must be sown every week or two. Give it 
rich earth, that it may grow rapidly. It is best when an 
inch high, but is generally allowed to get two or three 
times as high before cropping. Begin to sow for winter 
and early spring use in September and October, in a shel- 
tered situation; and again as soon as spring opens, sow 
in the open ground, in drills six or eight inches apart; 
cover lightly, and pat over the bed with the back of the 
spade to press the earth upon the seed. Keep the ground 
clear, and water in dry weather. It can be had all winter 
by the use of the cold frame or hot-bed; give plenty of 
air. A few rows left uncut will produce seed abundantly. 
Use. — The young and tender leaves give to salads a 
"warm, pungent, and agreeable taste. It is generally used 
in connection with lettuce and other salads. 

CUCUMBER. — f Cucnmis sativus.) 

This is a tender, trailing annual, with rough, heart- 
shaped leaves, and yellow flowers, growing wild in the 
East Indies, etc. It is one of the earliest garden products 
mentioned in history, and was cultivated from the earliest 
times in Egypt. (X umbers, xi., 5.) 

It has always been a vegetable peculiarly grateful and 
refreshing to the inhabitants of warm climates. It was 
probably early brought into Europe from the East, as it 
was in high esteem among the Romans, who so well un- 
derstood its culture, that it appeared on the tables of the 
wealthy in winter. In England, it w T as introduced as early 
as 1573. The best varieties are: 

Early Cluster, named from the fruit growing in 
clusters. The fruit is about five inches long, very produc- 
tive. Early Russian is a smaller and earlier variety of 
this. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



331 



Early Frame. — Six to ten inches long, much used for 
forcing; productive and good. 

Improved Early White Spined. — Is of fine form, deep 
green color, which it retains well; a good bearer, and of 
the best quality. 

Long Green. — Dark-green color; grows about ten 
inches in length and bears abundantly; excellent for 
pickles; late. 

Thorburn's Everbearing is an excellent cucumber. 




Fig. 121 — Arlington White Spine Cucumber. 

Gherkin (G. Anguria). — A different species with small 
and prickly fruit, and leaves much divided, or palmated; 
a great bearer, but used only for pickling. 

There are many other varieties, some of which grow 
two feet long, crisp and well flavored, but the foregoing 
are the best for family use. 

For market use the Boston White Spine is generally 
planted. 

Culture. — The seed may be planted here about the first 
of April, or as soon as it can be done with safety, as this 



332 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

plant is very tender, and will not bear the least frost. If 
the soil be deeply trenched, the plant is much less suscep- 
tible to drought. After the ground is prepared, dig out 
holes fifteen inches deep and the same in diameter, six 
feet apart each way, and partly fill them with well-decom- 
posed manure. A little guano, or fowl manure, sprinkled 
in the bottom of the hills will be very beneficial. Do not 
use fresh manure, or the plants will die out. Cow manure 
and leaf-mould are excellent. Cover over the manure 
with rich, mellow loam. Eaise the hills a little above 
the surface, and put eight or ten seeds in the hill; cover 
an inch deep, and when they get rough leaves, pull up the 
poorest plants, and leave but three in the hill. Old seed 
is much better than new, as the plants will run less to 
vines and bear better. 

The Florida Experiment Station recommends the fol- 
lowing as an excellent fertilizer: 

" Available phosphoric acid, 7 per cent. 

Potash, 8 per cent. 

Nitrogen, 5 per cent. 

" Fifteen hundred or 2,500 pounds per acre will be re- 
quired on most lands. If the land is rich in organic mat- 
ter use less or none of the nitrogen. A tablespoonful of 
nitrate of soda sprinkled about the hills as soon as the 
plants are up will hurry them along out of danger from 
insects. Too much nitrogeneous matter makes poor 
shippers and overgrown sizes." 

As soon as the vines get rough leaves, nip off the ex- 
tremities, to make them branch out, and they will fruit 
the sooner. This is called stopping. Cucumbers are very 
subject in cool, dry seasons to attacks of insects, espe- 
cially the striped bug and the cucumber flea. Dry wood 
ashes or air-slacked lime, dusted thoroughly upon the 
plants when the dew is on, will generally repel them, and 
bring the plants forward. But warm rains will soon 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUKK. 333 

bring up the plants beyond the reach of the depredators. 
If they do not, put over the hills boxes covered with 
millinet. Hoe frequently, until the plants cover the 
ground. The Early Cluster should have the hills about 
four feet apart. 

After the first planting succession crops for pickles are 
put in up to July near New York city, and in Georgia 
until August. At the {South the melon worm makes its 
appearance in July, and unless the cucumbers are gath- 
ered while small, they will be injured by this insect. 

Cucumbers can be very much forwarded by planting 
them in boxes covered over with glass. Two seven-by- 
nine panes are large enough to cover a hill, and such hills 
will not be troubled by the bugs, while the seed can be 
put in four or five weeks earlier than otherwise. The seed 
can also be planted in pots under a frame, or in a green- 
house, to be turned out, when the weather gets favorable, 
into the open air, and they will scarcely show they have 
been moved. Or they can be raised wholly without re- 
moval, in hot-beds made as directed in a former chapter. 
They do best when started in pots placed in a small hot- 
bed, and transplanted when the leaves are two or three 
inches broad into new beds of a larger size. They must 
have plenty of air, and be placed near the glass, or they 
will be drawn up. If they begin to grow long-legged, give 
them more air. The temperature of the seed-bed should 
range between 65° and 85°. Always water the plants 
with tepid water, about noon, unless in mild days, when 
it may be done in the morning. 

Liquid manure, especially guano water, is very bene- 
ficial. In planting in the bed for fruiting, do not break 
the ball of earth; take them out of the pots carefully at 
night, water gently, keep the sash down the next day, and 
shade at noonday, to keep them from withering. It is 
necessary the beds should be shaded with a mat during 



33 I GAEDENING FOB DHE SOI I n. 

the middle of the day, when the sashes are kept down, 

until the plants gel well established. 

Stopping in the frame is still more important than in 
i lie open air. The temperature now must be kept between 
70 and DO , by external coatings of fresh dung, if neces- 
sary. The shoots must be trained regularly over the sur- 
face of the bed. Leave only two or three main branches 
to each plant, removing the others as they appear. If the 
plants that have been stopped have extended their run- 
ners three joints without showing fruit, they must be 
stopped again. The vines should blossom in a month from 
the time of planting. Impregnate the pistillate or female 
blossom (which may be known by its having fruit at- 
tached), by taking the staminate blossom and placing its 
center within thai of the pistillate blossom. They may 
be gathered in about two weeks after impregnation. 
Three plants are sufficient for one sash of the usual size. 

For Seed. — Choose some of the finest fruit of each 
variety growing Dear the root. Do not raise the plants 

near other varieties, or (he seed will mix and deteriorate. 

Let them remain until t hey turn yellow, and the footstalk 

wit hers; cut them off and keep in the sun until they begin 
to decay; then wash the seed from the pulp, ami spread 
it out to dry. It will keep eight or ten years, and is even 

better when I hree or four years old, as the plants are less 
luxuriant and more productive. 

Use. — Cucumbers are a xrvy popular, but not very 
wholesome vegetable. They are of a cold, watery nature, 
and many persons of weak constitution cannot eat them 
without positive injury. They possess scarcely any nutri- 
tive properties, but their cooling nature renders them to 
most palates very agreeable, and persons in good health 
do not find them injurious. They are eaten raw, fried, 
stewed, and pickled. 

MARKETING. — The well-grown cucumbers should bo 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AM, CULTURE. 335 

selected for shipmenl to market. They should be green 
through in cross section, and should be of such a size 
thai ninety will just till a bushel crate; the form must 
be full and not badly shaped. No cucumber of a yellow 
tint must be placed in the package if a good vice is 

expected. 

The ordinary vegetable crate is used for shipping this 
vegetable to the market. The cucumbers are laid in (lose 
and compact, and the crate tilled above the top; then the 
top is pressed on, so thai the vegetable is securely packed, 
and no movement becomes possible during shipment. 

CHINESE YAM.— (Dioscorea Batatas.) 

A perennial planl broughl from China to France in 
1850 or 1851 by M. de Montigny, the French Consul at 
Shanghai. It has annual stalks or vines, and perennial 
tuberous roots. The leaves are heart-shaped, triangular, 
pointed above, and seven oreighl nerved. The length and 
breadth of the leaf are aboul equal; it has a smooth and 
glossy surface, and is of a deep green color, its footstalks 
are half the length of the leaf, furrowed, and of ;i violet 
color, its flowers are dioecious, and of a pale yellow 
color. The twining stems turn from left to right, and 
grow, if staked, ;it leasl ten or twelve feet high, and 
develop from the axils of the leaves small tubers, the size 
of n large ]>ea or kidney bean, which drop from the stem 
;it maturity. 

Culture. — The small, axillary tubers afford the readiest 
mode of propagating the plant, though the largest pro- 
duct seems to have been obtained where the root tubers 
were cut in sections an inch or an inch and a half long. 
These should be planted in rich ground deeply trenched, 
the deeper the better, and then laid off in low ridges or 
hods eighteen or twenty inches from center to center. On 
the to]» of this ridge a furrow, three inches deep, is made 



336 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

with the hoe, in which the sets are planted. This should be 
done early in the spring, and where the seasons are short 
the plants should be started in pots to be planted out 
when danger of frost is over. Keep the young plants free 
from weeds, and cultivate like sweet potatoes, except that 
no earthing up is required. The plant likes moisture, and 
growth is arrested in dry weather. It is found to produce 
larger roots if not staked, and the plant is allowed to fall 
upon, and shade, the ground. Watering in dry w r eather 
is beneficial. The crop should not be gathered until after 
the autumn frosts, and roots will be found somewhere 
between ten and thirty-six inches below T the surface. The 
whole root should be extracted, as the lower part is 
always the largest and most starchy. This should be 
reserved for the table, while the upper or slender part 
should be kept for propagation. It is a difficult matter to 
take them up without breaking, as they often grow three 
feet long. If not required for immediate use, the roots 
may safely remain in the ground until spring, or may be 
taken up and stored. The deep trenching required in 
preparing the soil, and the great labor in gathering the 
crop, will prevent its extensive cultivation. 

Use. — The roots, which are oblong and tapering, are the 
edible part. The maximum size to which they grow is 
two inches in diameter, the larger end tapering upward 
to the size of the finger. They are covered with a brown- 
ish-fawn-colored skin, pierced by numerous rootlets. Un- 
der this is a cellular tissue of a white opal color, very 
crispy, filled with starch and a milky, mucilaginous fluid, 
with scarcely any woody fiber. When cooked, it boils or 
bakes quickly, and becomes dry and mealy, and is gene- 
rally preferred to the Irish potato, which it resembles 
in taste. Each plant often produces several tubers, but 
generally only one, ranging in weight from eight ounces 
to three pounds. It is more nutritive than the Irish 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 337 

potato, which it may possibly rival in esteem wherever 
labor is cheap and it is desirable to obtain a large amount 
of food on a little space. 

The other yams (Dioscorea sativa and alata) are culti- 
vated on the Gulf coast to some extent, and in the same 
manner as the sweet potato, except that the vines are 
supported by a stake or pole. 

D. aculeata sometimes grows three feet in length, and 
often weighs thirty 
pounds. The roots are 
cut up into small sets and 
planted in rows two feet 
apart and eighteen inches 
in the row, and by for- 
warding them in pots 
upon hot-beds have been 
grown in Europe as far 
north as Paris. 

EGGPLANT. 

(Solarium melongena, var. 
esculentum.) 

The Eggplant, or 
Guinea Squash, is a ten- 
der annual from Africa, 
introduced into England 

in 1597. It derives its Figl 122 ~ New Jersey Improved Large 

Purple Eggplant. 

most common name from 

the white variety, which, when small, bears a close 
resemblance to an egg. When first introduced, it was 
not regarded with much favor, but is now rapidly 
working into general esteem. 

Long Purple is perhaps the best kind for family use, 
as it is ten days earlier than the other varieties, and 
though not growing so large, is very prolific in fruit. 
22 




338 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Improved New York Purple. — This is one of the best 
varieties, and is usually the kind planted. It has a large 
fruit of an oval shape and deep purple. 

Black Pekin. — The fruit is purplish-black, smaller 
than the preceding; solid, smooth. It is prolific and fine 
flavored. 

Culture. — Eggplants require a light, loamy, rich soil, 
to bring their fruit early to perfection. They like the soil 
manured with half -decayed leaves, well dug in. To have 
them early, sow in a hot-bed, or in a cold frame under 
glass, the latter part of February, or early in March. The 
rows may be six or eight inches apart, made shallow and 
the earth pressed upon the seed. Keep the sash carefully 
closed until the plants are up, and then give air in warm 
days. They succeed best with a small frame to them- 
selves, as they like a higher heat than is desirable for 
other plants. As very few plants are required, they may 
be planted in a small box without bottom, placed on the 
ordinary hot-bed and covered with a square of glass. 
Prick them out, when two inches high, into small pots, 
and afterwards transfer them to larger ones, as directed 
for the tomato. They can thus be planted out with the 
ball of earth entire. Do not put them out until settled 
warm weather, for if the plants get chilled while young 
their growth is so checked that they may never fully re- 
cover. 

The plants, when young, are often destroyed in a day 
or two by a minute flea. Keep them closely covered until 
well out of the seed-leaf, and, if attacked, sprinkle them 
with a solution of aloes or quassia, and dust them with 
lime and sulphur. 

It is hardly worth while to sow the seed in the open 
ground, as they would be so late in coming into use. 
Prepare the final bed for eggplants by making trenches 
three feet apart, burying in them old cabbage stumps, 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 339 

corn stalks, and other vegetable refuse, and covering 
them with soil twelve inches deep, in which plant out 
the eggplants two feet apart in the row. Water abun- 
dantly until established. Keep the ground well hoed and 
free from weeds, and earth up the plants a little from 
time to time. Twelve to twenty plants will be enough. 

For Seed. — Allow one of the largest fruits from a pro- 
lific plant to ripen seed. It will keep three or four years. 

Use. — Eggplant is used by the French in various ways 
in soups and stews, but generally cut in thin slices, and 
fried in batter. They are not commonly liked at first, but 
after a few trials become very agreeable to most tastes, 
and are esteemed a delicacy. They are fit for use when 
some two or three inches in diameter, and continue so 
until the seeds begin to change color. They are not un- 
wholesome, but cannot be very nourishing, as they con- 
tain a very large proportion of water. Before frying, 
they should be cut in slices a quarter to a half of an inch 
thick, and piled on a plate with alternate layers of salt, 
in order to remove the acrid taste. 

Marketing. — The eggplant to be marketable must be 
of good average size, weighing not less than one pound, 
and must have the coloring not too light, and must be 
tender. The stem is cut to the length of about one inch, 
and each eggplant is wrapped in paper before packing. 
Pack in bushel crates firm and solid, so that there will be 
no movement in the vegetable while shipping; use every 
care to prevent bruising. 

ENDIVE. — (Cichorivm Endivia.) 

Endive is a hardy annual, a native of China and Japan; 
first cultivated in England in 1548. The root leaves are 
numerous, large, sinuate, toothed, and smooth. The stem 
rises about two feet high, producing generally blue 
flowers. The best varieties are: 



340 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

Large Green Curled. — A hue, hardy variety, with 

long, beautifully curled leaves. It is the best for .salads. 

Broad-Lea ved Bataviax has thick, plain, or slightly 
wrinkled foliage. It is principally used for cooking, and 
making a larger head is preferred for stews and soups, 
but is not much used for salads. 

< Iture. — Endives deliuht iu a liuht. rich soil, dug 
deeply to admit its tap-routs, and to serve as a drain for 
any superfluous moisture in the winter standing crop. 
The situation should be open and free from the shade of 
trees. 

If desired in summer, sow as early in the spring as 
possible. The main crop is sown near Philadelphia the 
first of July: here in August or September for fall and 
winter use. Sow at this season, if possible, everything 
just before a shower: draw a furrow the depth of the hoe. 
in the bottom of which scatter the seed thinly, and cover 
slightly with earth, pressing it upon the seed. Plant in 
the evening, if dry. and before covering water copiously 
with the line rose of a water-pot in the drill. Do not pi — 
the earth upon the seed uutil morning: shade during the 
day. and continue watering in the evening until the plants 
get rooted. The drills should be twelve or fifteen inches 
apart. Boe freely and keep the -round free from weeds; 
thin the plants when two inches high. Those removed 
may be transplanted to another location: choose moist 
weather for this purpose; trim the leaves a little, and 
water moderately every evening until the plants get es- 
tablished, and during very long droughts. Those left in 
the seed-bed make the best plants. They should be 
thinned to twelve or fifteen inches in the drill, or planted 
out that distance apart, the Batarian requiring the most 
spare. 

In about three months after sowing, as they grow 
sto.kv and full in the heart, the leaves being about eight 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 341 

inches long, tie up the leaves of a few every week or so to 
blanch, and render them tender and remove their bitter 
taste. Perform this in dry days. The curled sort will 
sometimes blanch pretty well if neatly earthed up with- 
out being tied, but it is better to tie it. The broad leaved, 
from its loftier and looser growth, needs a bandage. Fold 
the leaves round the heart as much as possible in their 
natural position, and tie them up with a string or shred 
of bass; then cover them entirely with sand in the form 
of a cone, making the surface smooth and firm. This must 
be done in dry, but not frosty weather, as the plants will 
rot if the leaves are wet or frozen. They may also be 
blanched under garden pots like sead-cale, or by merely 
tying them closely, winding the string several times 
round the plant and (losing the top, so as to exclude the 
rain, drawing the earth around the base to support it. 
This is the best mode in hot weather; in autumn they will 
blanch in ten days; in winter they require nearly twice 
that time. Succory to blanch is taken up and planted in 
boxes of mould, which are carried into a cellar or dark 
room and watered when necessary. The blanched leaves 
will be supplied all winter. Endive needs no protection 
in our Southern winters. At the North it is taken up with 
earth about the roots, and wintered in frames. 

For Seed. — Let some of the best and most vigorous 
plants remain till February, and transplant if you wish to 
use the ground, in rows eighteen inches apart. Support 
the stems by stakes, and gather the seed vessels as they 
ripen. Dry them thoroughly on a cloth, thresh, and pre- 
serve in paper bags. The seed will keep four years. 

J v . — Endive is cultivated for its stocky head of leaves, 
which, after their bitterness is removed by blanching, are 
used in autumn and winter for salads and stews. Tt 
possesses several of the virtues of the dandelion; it never 



342 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

disagrees with the stomach, but suits every constitution. 
The French use it in a variety of forms — raw, stewed, 
boiled, etc. — but it is chiefly employed as a salad. 

GARLIC. — (Allium sativum.) 

This is a hardy perennial from Sicily and the south of 
France; it has been cultivated at least three hundred 
years. There are two sorts — one with large and the other 
with small bulbs — each bulb consisting of a half dozen or 
more small bulbs or cloves. 

Culture. — Garlic likes a dry, light, rich soil, but not 
freshly manured; the manure should be put on the pre- 
ceding crop. Prepare the ground as directed for the rest 
of the onion tribe, and mark it off into drills eight inches 
apart. Plant the cloves four inches distant in the drills, 
and two inches deep, and see that they are put in right 
side up. Keep the ground free from weeds, and light by 
frequent hoeing. Plant from October to March. 

A few roots may be taken up the latter part of May 
for use as required, but do not lift the crop until the 
leaves are withered. Break down the seed stalk if it rises, 
to prevent it from running to seed, which would lessen 
the size of the bulbs. 

When the leaves turn yellow, take up the bulbs and 
dry them thoroughly in the shade, tie them together by 
the tops, and lay them up for winter in a dry loft as you 
would onions. If the ground is not needed for another 
crop, they may remain to be drawn as wanted. 

Use. — This plant has a well-known, strong penetrating 
odor, which is most powerful at midday. In medicine it 
is an excellent diaphoretic and expectorant; a diuretic 
when taken internally, and has a reputation as an anthel- 
mintic or worm destroyer. Some nations use it very 
extensively for seasoning soups and stews, and indeed it 
enters into almost everv dish; but in this countrv it is not 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 343 

very much liked. Still, a very slight, scarcely perceptible 
flavor, or, as the French have it, a soupcon (suspicion) of 
garlic is not repugnant, but rather agreeable to most 
tastes. 

GROUND VEA.—(Arachis hypogcea.) 

This plant is likewise known as the Pindar and Pea-nut. 
Although not exactly belonging to the kitchen garden, a 
few hills should be allowed a place for the sake of the 
little folks. It is a trailing, annual, leguminous plant, 




Fig. 123— Spanish Peanut. Improved Georgia Peanut. 

a native of South America, from whence it was trans- 
ported to Africa and our own country. It is one of the 
few plants which ripen seed under ground. The yellow, 
pea-shaped flower springs from the part of the stem near 
the surface of the earth, and after being fertilized, the 
flower stem elongates, growing from four to eight inches, 
turning downward until the small tubercle which is to 
be the future seed-pod reaches and penetrates the earth. 
The seed of the ground pea abounds in a fine oil, which is 
sometimes expressed for table purposes. This oil renders 



344 GARDENING FOR THE FOUTH. 

it a very valuable crop for fattening' hogs, being for this 
purpose fully equal to, and probably better than corn. 
The vines are greedily eaten by most farm animals. 

There are several varieties, viz.: Virginia running and 
bunch, (Spanish peanut, Tennessee white and red, Georgia 
improved peanut, and North Carolina. The peas of the 
Georgia are larger than those of the Spanish, and they 
are also superior in quality. The plants are productive 
and yield few imperfect peas. The Virginia are most 
popular with the trade. 

Culture. — The ground pea thrives and produces best on 
a light, sandy, tolerably fertile soil, with a good clay sub- 
soil. Like clover, it possesses a long tap-root, which ex- 
tends deep into the earth, drawing thence the nutriment 
which is beyond the reach of many of our cultivated crops. 
The soil should be deep and mellow and well broken up, 
so as to be ready for planting soon after the heavy frosts 
are over. The last of March or the first of April is a suit- 
able time. They succeed well as far north as Virginia, 
beyond which they may be started early in hot beds, and 
transplanted to the open ground when the weather be- 
comes mild. 

For field culture, they may be planted in the pod, two 
in the hill; but for the garden should be shelled. It is 
best to drop about four in a hill on the level ground, the 
rows being laid off three and a half feet wide and the 
hills two feet asunder; cover them two or three inches. 

When they come up, thin them to two in a hill, and, if 
there be any vacancy, transplant. It is better to plant 
them level than on ridges, as they are less liable to suffer 
from drought. As they continue growing all the season, 
it is well to get them started as soon as the severe frosts 
are over. The only after-culture they require is to keep 
the ground clean and mellow, and a slight hilling up 
when they are laid by. They will produce from twenty- 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 345 

five to seventy or eighty bushels per acre, according to 
soil and culture, and are as easily cultivated as corn. 

Marketing. — The harvesting is done by means of a 
plow, and as fast as the plants are turned over they are 
shaken by means of a pitchfork to free them from dirt 
and then they are piled in rows for a few hours until 
partially dry. Stacks are made in the field by placing 
the plants on boards (to raise them from the ground so 
that they will not decay,) around an upright pole, where 
they remain for several days until entirely dried out, 
when the nuts are picked from the vines by women and 
children. This method of harvesting makes the nuts cost 
more than when gathered by machinery, but it is claimed 
that the condition of the nuts is better when gathered by 
hand. The crop is placed in sacks and shipped to the 
cleaning and sorting factory, where they are cleaned of 
all grit and imperfect nuts by machinery, and they are 
then ready for the market. They are sacked and sold by 
measure. 

HORSE-RADISH.— (Xast urtium Armoracia.) 

Horse-radish is a Cruciferous perennial plant, grow- 
ing naturally in moist places in England, and various 
other parts of Europe. Its flowers are white, and appear 
in panicles in May. It has long been an inhabitant of the 
garden. 

Culture. — Horse-radish delights in a deep, rich mould, 
moderately and regularly moist; the roots are never of 
good size if grown in poor soil, or under the shade of trees. 
It seldom produces seed, and hence is propagated by sets 
provided by cutting the roots and offsets into lengths of 
two inches. The tops and crowns of the roots make the 
best sets, as they are earlier and make a finer growth 
than those from the centre of the root. Each set should 
have two eves. The finest crops are made by trenching 



346 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 

the ground two feet deep, and planting the cuttings with 
a long, blunt-pointed dibble. It may be done late in the 
fall, or if in spring, the earlier it is planted, if the ground 
is suitable, the better. The rows should be eighteen 
inches apart, the plants twelve inches in the row, and 
planted eight or ten inches deep. After the beds are 
planted, smooth the surface and keep clear of weeds, and 
avoid treading upon the beds, as they should be kept as 
light as possible. If planted in March, a crop of radishes 
or lettuce may be taken off the ground before the plants 
make their appearance. They speedily root and send up 
long, straight shoots, those appearing in April that were 
planted in autumn. The only cultivation is to keep them 
free from weeds, and remove the decayed leaves in 
autumn. Hoe and rake the bed over in autumn, and also 
the following spring. By the next fall, the roots are 
ready to take up as wanted. If the plants throw up 
suckers, they should be carefully removed as they appear. 

If any manure is applied to horse-radish, it must be 
put at the bottom of the trench before planting, or the 
plant will send out side shoots in search of the manure, 
which would greatly injure the crop. 

To take them up, a trench is dug along the outside row 
down to the bottom of the upright roots, which are cut 
off nearly level with the original planting. The earth 
from the next row is turned over upon them to the de- 
sired depth, and so on until finished. The pieces of roots 
left will send up new shoots, and the same bed will pro- 
duce well in this way five or six years, when the site of 
the plantation should be changed; when this is to be 
done every piece of root should be taken up, for the 
smallest of them will vegetate and prove troublesome if 
left. The best roots come from fresh plantations. 

Use. — Horse-radish scraped into shreds with vinegar 
is a well-known and desirable accompaniment to roast 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 347 

beef. It is also used iii fish and other sauces and chicken 
salads, aud is thought to assist digestion. The shreds 
pickled in strong vinegar and closely stopped in glass 
bottles will keep for years. 

HOP. — (Humulus Lupulus.) 

The Hop is a plant of the Hemp or Nettle family, with 
a perennial root, throwing out many herbaceous climbing 
steins, and is found growing wild on the banks of rivers 
in Europe, Siberia, and our own country. It was culti- 
vated in England, in or before 1525, when the old dog- 
gerel states: 

" Hops, heresy, pickerel, and beer, 
Were brought into England in one year." 

A few roots should be in the garden, as they are useful 
in making yeast and beer. 

Culture. — It is propagated by dividing the roots in au- 
tumn and spring. It being dioecious, care should be 
taken to get sets from the pistillate plants. To produce 
the crop in perfection, there should be a male plant in 
the vicinity. Give the plant a deep, rich soil ; put two or 
three plants, six inches apart, in a hill (making with the 
plants, when set, a triangle), and the hills six or eight feet 
apart. Keep the ground free from weeds, and well 
stirred. Manure them every year. Give them poles 
twelve or fourteen feet long, and two or three poles to 
each hill. Gather when of a straw color, and the inside 
of the hop is covered with a plentiful yellow dust, and the 
seeds are brown; dry thoroughly, and put them up in 
bags for use. 

Use. — The principal use of the hop is in the prepara- 
tion of yeast, etc. The young shoots and suckers are 
boiled and eaten as asparagus. It is very largely culti- 
vated in fields, to be used in the manufacture of ale and 



348 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



strong beer. Its medicinal qualities are tonic and sopo- 
rific. In gardens it is often grown as a screen, to hide 
unsightly objects, the plants being set twelve inches 
asunder in a row, and staked, or trained on a trellis. 

KOHL-RABI. — (Brassica oleracea var. caulo-rapa.) 

This plant, called also Turnip Cabbage, from the turnip- 
like form of its stem, is but yet little cultivated. The 

edible part is the en- 
larged short stem, which 
is of a globular form, 
with a few leaves on top. 
Its culture is the same as 
the cabbage, except that 
in hoeing care must be 
taken not to throw dirt 
into the heart of the 
plant, or the bulb cannot 
form. In hoeing, keep 
the soil flat. 

The Early White Vienna 
and Early Purple Vienna 
are the best for the gar- 
den. It is cultivated ex- 
actly like the rutabaga 
turnip, for which, when cooked young, it is an excel- 
lent substitute. When full grown, it is used for feed- 
ing stock. It is very hardy, and needs no winter 
protection in the more southern States. 

LEEK. — ( A Ilium Porrum.) 

The Leek is a hardy biennial of the onion tribe, found 
wild in Switzerland, but has been cultivated in gardens 
from the earliest times. It is mentioned in the Scriptures 
with the onion as one of the vegetables of the Egyptians; 









^^^^^^HtMfii 




_y ^ 




i « JN 


W : 


' * 




K^jfektU 


ft^w 










vWJ 


Ms 


Iik^hjSf 




l^vfs 




^^ i* 



Fig. 124— New Smooth White Short- 
Leaved Kohl-Rabi. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 349 

and at the present day is often associated with the name 
of St. David, the patron saint of the Welsh. This plant 
endures the extremes of heat and cold without injury. 

Ashes, bones, gypsum, and common salt will supply the 
requisite inorganic materials for this or almost any other 
garden crop. A compost of guano, gypsum and charcoal 
would be very beneficial. 

Varieties. — There are two in common use — the Scotch 
Champion, which is the larger and hardier, and the Lon- 
don Clay, which by many is considered the better of the 
two — both tall, with thick stems and broad leaves. Large 
American flag is a large form, hardy and excellent 
quality, and is a favorite. The Large Rouen Leek, with 
dark-green leaves and a short stem, sometimes grown to 
the thickness of a man's arm, is now most liked in France. 
Its stem is said to grow large enough for use sooner than 
any other, and it is now much esteemed. 

Culture. — The leek is raised solely from seed, which may 
be sown at any time during autumn, winter, and spring, 
until the middle of April. February is the best month 
for the purpose, if but one crop is raised. 

The soil for leeks, as for the others of the onion tribe, 
should be light and rich — the blackest and most fertile 
soil of the garden — but the manure applied must not be 
rank. The same guano compost may be applied as for 
onions. They are generally sown broadcast, but it is a 
much neater method to sow in drills. Make the drills in 
the seed-bed eight inches apart, and about an inch deep, 
and scatter the seed rather thinly. Press fine earth upon 
the seed, as directed for onions. Some gardeners thin 
them out, and allow them to remain in the seed-bed, but 
the leek is so much improved by transplanting that this 
plan cannot be recommended. When the plants are three 
or four inches high, they must be weeded and thinned to 
one or two inches apart, and frequently watered in dry 



350 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 

weather. The seed-bed must be kept clean and light by 
weeding, or the use of the hoe whenever required, until 
the plants are six or eight inches high, when they will be 
tit for transplanting. They must then be taken away from 
the seed-bed, the ground being previously well watered, 
if not already soft and yielding. 

Having prepared beds four feet wide by spading in a 
quantity of well-rotted manure, lay it off in little trenches 
twelve inches apart, and as deep as the hoe will conven- 
iently go. Dibble holes three inches deep, and nine inches 
apart in the bottom of the trenches, in which set out the 
plants. Press the earth to the roots and neck only, and 
not to the leaves. The tops and roots may be slightly 
trimmed and shortened. Some prefer planting them, as 
is best for shallow soils, on the level surface of the pre- 
pared bed, by inserting them in holes made with the 
dibble nearly down to the leaves, with the whole neck 
beneath the surface, that it may be well blanched. Choose 
a moist time for transplanting, and give a little water 
should they droop. A portion may remain in the seed- 
bed six inches apart in the rows, but they do not grow as 
large as the transplanted ones. 

The beds must be hoed occasionally, to keep them free 
from weeds and loosen the soil. In dry weather they 
should be freely watered. By cutting off the leaves a 
little about once a month, the neck will swell to a much 
larger size; earth them up gradually, if they stand on a 
level ground, and, if in the trenches, the earth should be 
drawn by a hoe, little by little, into the trenches, as the 
plants increase in growth. 

If a very early crop is desired, they may be planted in 
September, and the plants will be ready to set out the 
middle of February ensuing, and will come into use in 
June or July. Leeks can be planted between almost any 
other crop by giving six inches extrn room. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 351 

For Seed. — Soine of the finest roots of last year's growth 
may be transplanted in February eight inches distant in 
a row. When the seed stems arise, they must be sup- 
ported by tying them to stakes. The heads should be cut 
when changed to a brownish color, with about a foot of 
the stalk attached, for the convenience of tying them 
into bundles of three or four to dry. When dry, they may 
be hung up in a dry place, and kept in the head until 
wanted, or threshed out and stored in paper bags; the 
seed will keep two years. 

( .sr. — The whole plant is much used in soups and stews, 
but the most delicate part is the blanched steins. From 
its mild, agreeable taste it is esteemed by many above the 
onion. 

Marketing. — Feel off the outside scales, tie in bundles 
of six and eight and pack in crates. 

LENTIL.— ( Lens, esculent*.) 

The garden Lentil is an annual Leguminous plant culti- 
vated in France for its flat seeds, of which two are con- 
tained in each pod. Lentils are planted at the same 
season with snap beans, in warm, sandy soil. If planted 
in one too rich, they grow vigorously, but produce few 
seeds. Sow in drills twenty inches asunder, covering 
lightly, and manage them like the snap bean. Harvest 
when the stems begin to turn yellow, and the pods of a 
dark color, but do not beat them out of the pod until re- 
quired for use, as in this condition they remain longer fit 
for use and sowing. 

Green or dry they are cooked like beans, and when dry, 
should be boiled two hours and a half. Soak in water 
before boiling. When done, add butter, pepper, and salt. 
They are an excellent addition to soups, being very nutri- 
tious. Like beans and peas, but in a greater degree, they 
are apt to be unwholesome for those of weak digestion. 



352 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



LETTUCE.— ( Lactuca sativa.) 

Lettuce is a Lardy, annual, composite-flowered plant, 
generally considered a native of Asia. The Cos lettuce, 
however, came from the Greek island of Cos, in the 
Levant. H lias been cultivated in England since 1562. 

or (he I wo great families of lettuce, (he Cos varieties, 
which grow upright and of an oblong shape, ami require 




Fig. 125. 

blanching, though more esteemed in England, do no1 gen- 
erally succeed so well in this country, except a I the South, 
where they may bo sown early in October. The cabbage 
varieties are more hardy and free growing, and better 
adapted to our common gardens. 

The following are good cabbage let luces: 

Butteb on Early White Cabbage. — Heads small, 
white, crisp, and closely cabbaged; leaves pale yellowish 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 353 

green; excellent for hot-bed culture, or open air; early 
and hardy. 

■ Brown Dutch (Yellow Seeded). — Heads much larger; 
equally tender and excellent, and closely headed; with 
brownish green leaves. 

The next variety, if sown at the same time with the 
above, will come into use about two weeks after them: 

Royal Cabbage. — Black seed; heads larger, and leaves 
of a darker green than the early cabbage; equally firm 
and crisp. 

After this comes on: 

Curled India. — Leaf of a light yellow green, and very 
much curled; a very distinct sort; heads large and close, 
but not so tine and crisp as the other varieties, but will 
continue to head much later. 

White Paris Cos. — Very large; leaves pale green, 
<> borate, hooded at top, closing over and blanching a large 
heart, without tying; becoming white, tender, crisp, and 
excellent; seeds white. Seeds should be saved only from 
those with leaves round, concave, and inclined to hood or 
turn inwards. The best summer sort. 

Henderson's New York. — The heads are solid and 
large; dark green outside and light green inside. This 
lettuce is crisp and of fine flavor. 

Boston Market. — Grows compact and produces a firm 
heart, with a beautiful color. The flavor is good. One of 
the best lettuces for forcing. There is a slight tinge of 
red on the margin of the leaves. 

New Mammoth Salamander. — An improved form of 
lettuce with a compact head and capable of resisting the 
summer heat and droughts. 

Deacon. — A good summer lettuce with large heads and 
thick leaves. When well grown the leaves of the heart 
turn to a bright yellow color; the leaves are crisp and 
tender. 
23 



354 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Hanson. — This is a standard market variety, and pro- 
duces a solid head with a fine flavor; crisp and tender. 
The color green outside with white inside. 

Grand Rapids. — For forcing under glass this lettuce 
stands near the head of the list. It retains its tender, 




Fig. 126 — New Mammoth Salamander Lettuce. 



fresh condition for a long period. The heads are more 
open than the preceding. 

Culture. — In raising good lettuce three things are 
necessary — good seed, good soil, and frequent hoeing — 
and of these the first is perhaps the most important. 
There is generally no difficulty in making lettuce seed 
vegetate, but if it is not saved from good heads it will not 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 355 

produce heads, even with the best culture. Lettuce likes 
a good mellow soil, enriched with well-rotted manure. 
Good heads will not grow on poor ground. Lettuce may 
be sown in autumn for six or eight weeks before the hard 
frosts come on, and transplanted into frames for winter 
cutting, or, protected with a little straw, it will stand 
through the winter in the open air and be planted out for 
heading in early spring. A second sowing should be made 
at the first opening of spring, and then at intervals until 
the summer's heat comes on. 

If there has been no fall sowing, a little should be sown 
the latter part of winter under glass, for which select 
Earty Cabbage. Give it pleut}' of air, but keep it covered 
nights and cold days, and as the weather grows mild, 
leave off the glass altogether a little while before setting 
out in the open air. Fall-sown Butter lettuce may also 
be transplanted under glass at nine inches apart, and the 
table be kept supplied iu this way with fresh heads all 
winter. Plenty of air must be given them, and they 
should be covered in freezing weather only. For a fall 
heading, a crop can be sown at the same time with turnips 
in a shady situation, which, being transplanted, will give 
good heads. The fall and summer sowings do much better 
if thinned to a suitable distance, and allowed to head 
where they stand, as lettuce plants are impatient of trans- 
planting in hot weather; but they may be safely moved 
if shielded by sun shades. 

Lettuce should be sown in drills eight inches apart. An 
ounce of seed will produce about ten thousand plants. 
Let the seed be very lightly covered, and if dry weather, 
press the earth upon it by walking over it on a board, or 
patting it with the back of the spade. Beds about four 
feet wide are most convenient. If the lettuce comes up 
too thickly in the drills it must be thinned, as the plants 



356 GARDENING FOR THE 80UTH. 

begin to crowd, to two inches apart. Transplant into 
the ground where they are to remain, when the plants 
show four leaves. The Early Cabbage may be planted 
nine inches apart each way; but the other varieties will 
not do with less than a foot. The soil into which they are 
to be removed to head must be rich, light and mellow. 
Transplant in moist weather with a trowel, disturbing the 
roots as little as possible. Water the plants until estab- 
lished. Rabbits are very fond of lettuce, but can be kept 
off by dusting the young plants with ashes. After the 
young plants get established, give them frequent hoeings, 
and if good seed was sown, there can be but little danger 
of not being rewarded with beautiful crisp heads. 

Seed. — Some of the finest and most perfect heads of the 
early-sown crops should be selected. Each variety must 
be kept separate, and all imperfect heading plants near 
them destroyed. Tie them to stakes, and gather the 
branches as fast as they ripen. Dry the seed in the shade 
and thresh and store in paper bags. Lettuce seed cannot 
be relied upon when more than two years old. 

I sv. — Lettuce is the most popular of all salads, and it 
is also sometimes used in soups. Boiled, it is quite equal 
to spinach. It is fit to boil from the time it is large enough 
until the seed stalk begins to shoot up. Its juice contains 
a narcotic principle somewhat like opium, which is in 
small proportion when young, but increases with the age 
of the plant. This principle has not the constipating 
effects of opium. A tea prepared of lettuce leaves is 
sometimes used in cases of diarrhea. For a common 
salad, let the leaves be carefully picked early in the morn- 
ing, washed and drained before sending to the table, and 
provide salt, oil, sugar, and vinegar, that each person may 
season to his taste. The finer salads require hard-boiled 
eggs, mustard and other condiments. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 357 

Marketing. — The heads are cleaned and all discolored 
leaves are taken oft'. Pack in crates with the heads down 
and well pressed together to prevent injury to the vege- 
table. 

MARJORAM. — (Origanum Unites and 0. Marjorana.) 

There are four species, two of which are sufficient for 
the garden. 

Pot Marjoram (0. Guiles) is a perennial Labiate plant 
from Sicily. It is propagated generally by dividing the 
roots early in the spring, and may be by seed. Plants 
should be set in rows twelve inches apart, and ten inches 
in the row, in a light, dry soil, and a warm situation. 

Sweet Marjoram (0. Marjorana) is a tender biennial 
commonly grown as an annual; a native of Portugal, and 
has been cultivated in England since 1573. It has small, 
acute leaves, and flowers in small, close heads. Sow in a 
slight hot-bed early in spring, and transplant when the 
frosts are over into rows uiue inches apart and six inches 
asunder in the row; or it may be sown in shallow drills 
in the open air after the ground becomes warm. As the 
seed is small, cover lightly with tine earth and thin out 
the plants to the proper distance. The leaves, green or 
dried, are used for seasoning soups, stuffings, etc. 

MELON, CANTALOUPE VARIETY.— (Cucumis Melo.) 
The Melon, or Muskmelon, is a tender, trailing annual, 
of the same family as the cucumber, squash, etc. It is sup- 
posed to be from Persia, but has been cultivated in all 
warm climates so long that it is difficult to assign, with 
certainty, its native country. It has been cultivated in 
Southern Europe at least four hundred years. It is the 
richest and most delicious of all herbaceous fruits. In 
England its culture is a difficult and expensive process, 
but in this country the most luscious melons are raised 
almost without trouble. 



358 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




Fig. 127 — Acme or Baltimore. 



Melons may be arranged in two classes, the green- 
fleshed and the scarlet-fleshed, the colors of the latter 
shading through orange to yellow. The varieties are ver^ 

numerous. The best for 
garden culture are the 
green-fleshed, and the 
following are among 
the best varieties: 

Acme or Baltimore. 
Form oblong with per- 
fect netting; excellent 
flavor; light green flesh; 
early and a fine shipper. 
A T l a x t i c C i t y . — 
Pineapple shaped 
melon; large and showy; moderately ribbed; strongly 
netted; flesh green and sweet; larger than the Acme, and 
a good shipper. 

Gold Jenny, or Jexxy Lixd. — Small, sweet and pro- 
lific; flat form at 
poles and medium 
cavity; texture coarse 
and soft; flavor ex 
cellent; early variety 
and highly prized for 
table use. 

PlXEAPrLE. 

One of the best 
flavored melons of 

large size and oval Fig. 128-McCleary's Improved Jenny Lind 
shaped; prolific and Muskmelon. 

strongly netted; the flesh is firm and coarse. 

Emerald Gem.— A delightfully flavored melon; small 
size, and dark green; the flesh ripens to the skin. An 
early, productive variety. 




VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



359 



Shipper's Delight. — An early, good-shipping variety; 
green flesh, thick and line flavored. The distinguishing 
feature of this melon is the button on the blossom end. 

Cult lire. — The melon likes a rich, sandy soil, well ma- 
mired and deeply dug. If the soil is clay, it should be 
corrected by the addition of charcoal-dust, sand, or leaf- 
mould from the woods. The most luscious melons are 




Fig. 129— Emerald Gem. 

grown on new land, fresh from the woods. They like, 
also, soil manured by cow-penning. In selecting seed, get 
the oldest to be had, and take great care to get that which 
is perfectly pure, for the seed of melons raised in prox- 
imity to gourds, cucumbers, pumpkins, etc., will produce 
new varieties, destitute of flavor. All plants of this family 
are exceedingly liable to intermix, to their great detri- 
ment. They will deteriorate, if planted within one hun- 
dred feet of each other. 

Plant in the open ground when the frosts are over, a 
little later than the general corn crop is planted. In sec- 
tions where the seasons are too short for it the melon is 
planted in pots in a hot-bed, and the maturity of the crop 



360 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

may be hastened everywhere in this way. When the 
ground is warm, the balls are taken from the pots, and 
set where they are to remain, protecting them with sun- 
shades a little at first, or with hand-glasses, if cold. Have 
about three plants to each pot. In the open ground, plant 
in hills six feet apart, and ten seeds to a hill, an inch 
deep. Thin to three, and finally two, in a hill. Make the 
hills as for cucumbers. Superphosphate of lime has an 
almost magical effect in improving the size and hastening 
the maturity of the melon. The insects are the same as 
attack the cucumber, and a little guano sprinkled around 
the hill, not too near the plants, and intermingled with 
the surface soil, will by its pungent smell drive off the 
bug and flea, and also prove a very valuable fertilizer 
of the plants. Watering with guano water for the same 
purpose is very beneficial. Until the vines touch, keep 
the ground about them fresh dug, mellow, and free from 
weeds. When the vines begin to run, and show the first 
blossom they must be stopped by pinching off the extreme 
bud, as in the cucumber. This will render them earlier 
and more prolific in large fruit. Their whole culture is 
like that of the cucumber, and they may be forced in the 
same manner. In sections where the melon worm de- 
stroys the later grown fruits, get them into bearing as 
early as may be. 

To Save Seed. — Select of each variety some of the 
earliest and best melons; wash the seed from the pulp, 
dry them in the shade, and put away in paper bags. They 
will keep ten years. Old seed is more prolific in fruit 
than new. Be sure to plant the oldest seed to be had, if 
it appears well preserved. 

Use. — The melon as a palatable and luscious fruit, very 
cooling in hot weather, maintains a high rank. It is 
usually eaten with salt alone, though many like the addi- 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 361 

tion of sugar and spices. That it is wholesome is proved 
by its constant use while in season as an article of food 
among the people of Southern Europe. The muskmelon 
contains but a trifle more water than the beet, and is 
quite as nourishing. It contains albumen, casein, dextrin 
and sugar, which, combined with citric, malic and tartaric 
acid, give its peculiar rich flavor. The green fruit may be 
cooked like the egg-plant, and is also made into mangoes. 
Marketing. — The smaller varieties are packed in vege- 
table crates and the larger in barrel crates. It is advisible 
to assort the melons and ship each variety in crates to 
itself. 

MUSHROOM. 

In writing the following description of the mushrooms 
the author has made liberal use of the Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 53, issued by the United States Department of Agri- 
culture, prepared by William Falconer; Circular No. 13, 
issued by the Division of Botany by Frederick V. Coville, 
and Bulletins Nos. 138 and 108 issued by the Cornell 
University Experiment Station, by Professor George F. 
Atkinson. 

The portion of the mushroom used for food is not the 
plant, but the fruit, which is developed from the white or 
bluish white mold, called the mycelium, or spawn, which 
is the plant proper. In its young condition this mycelium 
is a network of small threads running through the decay- 
ing organic matter, and from the joints of this thread- 
like form the mushroom springs and pushes to the light. 
Sufficient food and moisture must be given to these 
spawns to cause them to develop rapidly, and the mush- 
rooms will come forth in abundance. Plate 4 exhibits 
the mycelium, or the thread-like spawns as they appear 
when the earth is washed away. 

The mushrooms are very common in our forests and 
fields, some of which are poisonous, a number are edible. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 



363 



and the properties of many others are yet unknown. Until 
one is able to distinguish between the edible aud those 
which are poisonous it is wise not to attempt to collect the 
mushrooms from the fields, but to rely only on the spawn 
supplied by well- 
known and reliable 
seed merchants. With 
a little practice, how- 
ever, it is possible to 
recognize the more 
common forms, like the 
Agaricus campestris and 
the Amanita muscaria. 
And with proper care, 
on the part of an intel- 
ligent person, all dan- 
ger of poisoning may 
be eliminated. 

COMMON MUSHROOM. 

(Agaricus campestriSj Jj.) 

"Figure 130 is from a 
photograph of a speci- 
men of the common 
mushroom (or pratelle) 
which has been pulled 
and is lying on the 
table. The parts are 
easily recognized and 
named. The stem (sometimes called the stipe) is cylin- 
drical, or tapers a little toward the lower end. Near 
its upper end is a sort of a collar, usually termed a ' ring ' 
(or, technically, an annulus), which encircles it. This ring- 
is very delicate in this plant, is white like the stem, of a 




Fig. 130 — Mushrooms. Agaricus campes- 
tris, L (after Atkinson). View of un- 
der side showing stem, annulus, gills 
and margin of pileus. Cornell Experi- 
ment Station. 



364 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



very thin, satiny texture, and more or less ragged on the 
edge. 

" The more or less circular expanded disk into which 
the stem fits is called the 'cap' (technically the pilots, 
which is the latin for cap). The upper portion, of which 
we can only see the margin in this figure, is convex (see 
Figure 130). The surface is usually white, though some- 




Fig. 131 — Agaricus campestris (after Atkinson). View of under- 
side of pileus, showing arrangement of gills. 

times brownish, and usually is covered by a thin layer 
of very delicate threads, while the flesh or inner portion 
is more compact, and is white also. 

" On the under side of the cap are numerous thin plates 
or 'gills' (lamellae), which radiate from near the stem to 
the margin of the cap. These are shown in Figure 131 as 
fine radiating lines. They do not reach the stem, or, when 
they do, they are not attached to it. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



365 



" The common mushroom (Agaricus cam pest ris) grows in 
lawns, pastures and similar places. It averages 5-8 cm. 
(2-3 inches) in height, the pileus being 5-12 cm. in diameter. 

"Pileus. — The cap or pileus is convex or more or less 
expanded, the surface 
being nearly smooth, or 
more or less silky hairy, 
these fibrils sometimes 
being collected into tri- 
angular scales. The col- 
or of the surface is 
usually white, but 
varies to light brown, 
while the flesh is white. 

"«.-When the 
plant is very young the 
gills are first white, but 
soon become pink, and 
later purple brown or 
dark brown from the 
numerous purple col- 
ored spores on the sur- 
face. The gills are free 
from the stem, and 
rounded on their inner 
ends. 

"Veil and Annulus. — 
The veil is thin, white, 
silky and very frail. As 
the pileus expands the 
veil is stretched and 
finally torn, when it clings as a thin collar or ring (an- 
nulus) around the stem, or fragments dangle from the 
margin of the pileus. As the plant becomes old, the an- 
nulus shrivels up and becomes inconspicuous. 




Fig. 132 — Mushroom. Amanita phal- 
loides, Fr. (after Atkinson). Poison- 
ous Mushroom. White form, show- 
ing pileus, stipe, annulus and volva. 
Cornell Experiment Station. 



36() GAKDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

"titem or Stipe. — The stem is white, nearly cylindrical, 
or slightly tapering at the lower end. It varies from 3-8 
cm. long and \-'l cm. in diameter. The Hesh is solid, 
though less firm at the center." {Atkinson.) 

Amanita Phalloides, Fit. {The Deadly Amanita). — This 
mushroom may be mistaken for the Agqricus catnpestris by 
the careless collector, but there are marked differences 
between the two when examined. In the first place, the 
habitat of the Amanita is in the woods, while the Agari- 
cus is to be found in the open fields. The former also 
has a cup-like envelope, in which the base of the stem 
rests. This cup is called the " death cup " or " poison 
cup " or volva. The volva is the distinguishing character- 
istic of the poison forms, and whenever the mushrooms 
contain it they should be avoided. The Amanita is some- 
times found on the borders of the woods, closely situated 
to the edible forms, and this fact should be always care- 
fully remembered when out on a collecting tour. Be care- 
ful to dig up the entire stem, so that the volva may be 
certainly detected if present, because it is often true that 
the stem extends some distance below the surface of the 
ground and the poison cup may be overlooked if the 
mushroom is pulled up by the pileus. 

The Fly Amanita (Amanita muscaria (L) Pers). — In 
this mushroom the bulbous enlargement at the base of 
the stem is clearly indicated, and this, with the following- 
characteristics, distinguish this poisonous species from 
those which are edible, viz.: The thick scales on the stem, 
the corky particles on the glossy surface of the cap, and 
the broad, dropping ring at the top of the cap. The color 
of the upper surface of the cap varies from a brilliant red 
to orange-yellow, buff, and even white. Sometimes the 
corky layer does not break up into particles, but extends 
over the entire surface of the cap, and might be mistaken 
bv the novice to be another species. This is one of the 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



367 



most dangerous mushrooms growing wild, and too great 
care cannot be exercised by the collector in watching out 
for it in securing those mushrooms which are intended to 
be used for the table. 




Fig. 133— Fly amanita, Amanita muscaria (after Coville). 
Poisonous. One-half natural size 

The effects from the poisons taken into the system by 
accidentally eating these poisonous mushrooms are so 
violent and generally fatal, the following symptoms and 
treatment, recommended by Mr. Y. K. Chesnut. are given. 



368 



GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 




The poisonous principle of the death cup is known as 
phallin, and is of the same character as the violent 
poisons found in rattlesnakes and some other animals: 

" The fundamental injury is not due, as in the case of 
muscarine, to a paralysis of the nerves controlling the 
action of the heart, but to a direct effect on the blood 
corpuscles. These are quickly dissolved by phallin, the 
blood serum escaping from the blood vessels into the 

alimentary canal, 
and the whole sys- 
tem being rapidly 
drained of its vital- 
ity. No bad taste 
warns the victim, 
nor do the prelimi- 
nary symptoms be- 
gin until nine to 
fourteen hours 
after the poisonous 
mushrooms are 
eaten. There is 
then considerable 
abdominal pain and 
there may be 
cramps in the legs 
and other nervous 
phenomena, such as 
convulsions, and even lockjaw or other kinds of tetanic 
spasms. The pulse is weak ; the abdominal pain is rapidly 
followed by nausea, vomiting, and extreme diarrhea, the 
intestinal discharges assuming the 'rice-water' condition 
characteristic of cholera. The latter symptoms are per- 
sistently maintained, generally without loss of conscious- 
ness, until death ensues in from two to four days. 

" There is no known antidote by which the effects of 



Fig. 134 — Fly amanita, Amanita muscaria 
(after Coville). Top view. Poisonous. 
Two-fifths natural size. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 369 

pliallin can be counteracted. The undigested material, if 
not already vomited, should, however, be removed from 
the stomach and intestines by methods similar to those 
given for cases of poisoning by Amanita muscaria. 

"After that the remainder of the poison, if the amount 
of phallin already taken up by the system is not too largo, 
may wear itself out on the blood and the patient may re- 
cover. It is suggested that this wearing-out process may 
be assisted by transfusing into the veins blood freshly 
taken from some warm-blooded animal. The depletion of 
the blood serum might be remedied by similar transfu- 
sions of salt and warm water. 

"The symptoms of poisoning from the fly amanita, as 
deduced from a number of cases, are varied. In some in- 
stances they begin only after several hours, but usually 
in from one-half to one or two hours. Vomiting and 
diarrhea almost always occur, with a pronounced flow of 
saliva, suppression of the urine, and various cerebral 
phenomena beginning with giddiness, loss of confidence 
in one's ability to make ordinary movements, and de- 
rangement of vision. This is succeeded by stupor, cold 
sweats, and a very marked weakening of the heart's 
action. In case of rapid recovery the stupor is short and 
usually marked with mild delirium. In fatal cases the 
stupor continues from one to two or three days, and death 
at last ensues from the gradual weaking and final stop- 
page of the heart's action. 

" The treatment for poisoning b t y Amanita muscaria con- 
sists primarily in removing the unabsorbed portion of the 
amanita from the alimentary canal and in counteracting 
the effect of muscarine on the heart. The action of this 
organ should be fortified at once by the subcutaneous 
injection by a physician of atropine in doses of from one 
one-hundredth to one-fiftieth of a grain. The strongest 
emetics, such as tartarized antimony or apomorphine 
24 



870 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



should be used, though in case of profound stupor even 
these may not produce the desired action. Freshly ignited 
charcoal or two grains of a one per cent, alkaline solution 
of permanganate of potash may then be administered, in 
order, in the case of the former substance, to absorb the 




Fig. 135— Coprinus alramentarius (after Atkinson). Scaly form. Three- 
fourths natural size. 

poison, or in case of the latter, to decompose it. This 
should be followed by oils and oleaginous purgatives, 
and the intestines should be cleaned and washed out with 
an enema of warm water and turpentine. 

" Experiments on animals poisoned by the fly amanita 
and with pure muscarine show very clearly that when the 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 6 i 1 

heart has nearly ceased to beat it may be stimulated to 
strong action almost instantly by the use of atropine. Its 
use as thus demonstrated has been the means of saving 
numerous lives. We have in this alkaloid an almost per- 
fect physiological antidote for muscarine, and therefore 
in such cases of. poisoning its use should be pushed as 
heroically as the symptoms of the case will warrant. 

"The presence of phallin in Amanita muscaria is pos- 
sible, and its symptoms should be looked for iu the red 
color of the blood serum discharged from the intestines. 1 ' 

The Ink Cap (Coprinus atramentarius, Fr.). — This is one 
of the edible fungi, or mushrooms, and is quite abundant 
in new-made lawns that have been heavily manured, gen- 
erally in large clusters, but sometimes found scattered as 
single plants. The figure gives a very correct represen- 
tation of this mushroom. The pileus is egg-shaped, some- 
times smooth and then again covered with small scales, 
or in other cases the surface has a granular cast. The 
stems are short. 

Shaggy ok Maned Ink Cap (Coprinus comatus, Fr.). — 
Edible, and found growing on lawns and rich grass plats. 
The stem is longer than those of the ink-cap mushroom, 
and the pileus is very shaggy, and the pileus remains 
most of its life in a cylindrical form and does not expand 
into the umbrella shape as is the case with most of the 
other mushrooms. 

C all arc. — Beds may be readily constructed at any time 
of the year, except between April and September, when 
the temperature is rather too high for successful culture, 
unless in tin 4 cool cellar of some outhouse. But November 
and December are the best months for the purpose. Mush- 
rooms are propagated by spawn, which may be obtained 
for commencing from the seedsmen of our large cities. 
The spawn is an imported article, and there is but little, 



372 



GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 




Fig. 136 — Coprirms comatus (after 
Atkinson), well meriting the 
name "shaggy mane." Natu- 
ral size. 



if any, grown in this country 
for sale. There are two forms — 
the English brick and the 
French flakes. The bricks are 
broken into small pieces and 
the flakes are also subdivided 
before planting. 

After a little spawn is ob- 
tained, it may be increased as 
follows: Take a quantity of 
fresh manure from high-fed 
horses, mixed with short litter; 
add one-third cow's dung, and 
a good portion of loamy mould. 
Incorporate them thoroughly, 
mixing them with the drain- 
ing^ of a dung heap, and beat 
them until the whole becomes 
of the consistency of a thick 
mortar. Spread the mixture 
on the level floor of an open 
shed, and beat it flat with a 
spade. When it becomes dry 
to the proper consistency, cut 
it into bricks about eight 
inches square; set them on 
edge and turn frequently until 
half dry, then dibble two holes 
about half through each brick, 
and insert in each hole a piece 
of good spawn; close it with a 
moist composition similar to 
that of which the bricks were 
made, and let them remain 
until nearly dry. Then some- 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 3 To 

where under cover place a bottom of dry horse-dung six 
inches thick, and place the bricks, spawn side up, one 
upon another. The pile may be made three feet high; 
cover it with warm horse-dung sufficient to diffuse a gen- 
tle heat through the whole. The heat should not be over 
70°, and the pile should be examined the second day to 
see that it does not overheat. When the spawn is diffused 
entirely through the bricks the process is finished. The 
bricks should theu be laid separately in a dry place, and 
if kept perfectly dry, retain their vegetative power for 
many years. One bushel of spawn will plant a bed four 
feet by twelve. 

Beds for mushrooms may be made anywhere iu a dry 
situation under cover. Make them four feet wide and 
from ten to fifteen feet long, according to the wants of the 
family. A small shed might be erected for the purpose, 
but the back of a greenhouse is a very good situation, as 
they do not need much light. Space must be left for an 
alley, and if the shed be ten feet wide, it will admit of 
a bed on each side. 

Mushrooms, like other fungi, abound in nitrogen; 
hence, this substance is necessary to their nourishment, 
and unless substances rich in nitrogen, like horse dung, 
are supplied, it is useless to attempt their culture. 
Earth} 7 materials are added to prevent the escape of am- 
monia, which would pass off in fermentation, and the sub 
stances used are beaten and trodden to render the mass 
compact, that fermentation may be slower and more last- 
ing. The process of making the beds is as follows: 

A sufficient quantity of the droppings of hard-fed 
horses, pretty free from litter, must be obtained, which, 
while collecting, must be kept dry, and spread out thinly 
and turned frequently to prevent violent heating. When 
the rank steam has escaped, the bed may be built. The 
site should be dry. Dig out the earth six inches deep, the 



374 GARDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH. 

size of the bed, and if good lay it aside for use. Fill this 
trench with good fresh dung for the bottom, and lay on 
this the prepared dung, until the whole is six inches thick 
above the surface; beat it down firmly with the back of 
the fork, and build up the sides with a slight but regular 
slope. Let the bed slope downwards towards the walk, 
lay over it three inches of good clayey loam; place 
another layer ten or twelve inches thick of prepared dung, 
and in the same manner continue until the bed is two and 
a half or three feet thick. Cover the bed with clean litter, 
to prevent drying and the escape of the gases, and let it 
remain ten days, or until the temperature becomes mild 
and regular; about 60°, and certainly not less than 50°, is 
the proper degree of warmth. Here skill and practice are 
most required, for on the treatment at this precise point 
the success of the bed depends. If the manure has a 
brown color, and is so loose and mellow that when pressed 
it will yield no water, but has a fat, unctuous feel, with- 
out any smell of fresh dung, the bed is in a right state. 
If it is dry and hard, or sloppy and liquid, it is not in the 
proper condition. In the first case moderate watering 
may restore it, but in the latter the superabundance of 
water will probably spoil it, and it is better to commence 
anew. When the bed is ready, break the bricks of spawn 
into lumps the size of a walnut, which plant regularly six 
inches apart over the surface of the bed, including its 
sides and ends, just beneath the surface of the manure. 
Level the surface by gently smoothing with the back of 
the spade. Fine rich loam, rather light than otherwise, is 
then put on two inches thick; and over this, a covering of 
straw from six to twelve inches, according to the tempera- 
ture. If the bed gets too hot, take off most of the covering. 
When the bed appears too dry, sprinkle it gently with soft 
tepid water in the morning. The water should be poured 
through the rose of a watering-pot upon a thin layer of 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. O 10 

straw, laid oil i'or the purpose, and when the earth be- 
comes a little moistened, the straw should be removed, 
and the dry covering replaced. lu warm weather it will 
need frequent sprinkling, but in winter very little. 

As cow-manure, though it contains less ammonia, re- 
tains its heat longer than that of the horse, a mixture 
of the two may be safely employed. 

Iu four or five weeks after spawning the bed should 
begin to produce, and if kept dry and warm will last 
several months. A gathering may take [dace two or three 
times a week according to the productiveness. If it should 
not come on in two or three months, a little more warmth 
or a sprinkling of water will generally bring it into 
plentiful bearing, unless the spawn has been destroyed 
by overheating or too much moisture. In gathering the 
mushrooms detach them with a gentle twist and till the 
cavity with mould; do not use a knife, as the stumps left 
in the ground become the nurseries of maggots, which are 
liable to infest the succeeding crop. Gather before they 
become flat, when half an inch or more in diameter, and 
still compact and firm. 

Use. — This "voluptuous poison" has been cultivated and 
held in high esteem among epicures since the time of the 
Romans. They are employed in catsups, pickles, and rich 
gravies, and considered by those accustomed to them very 
delicious. Dried and powdered they are preserved in 
closely stopped bottles for times when they are not to be 
procured fresh. 

MUSTARD. — (Brassica alba, and B. nigra.) 

The leaves of the White Mustard ($. alba) are used for 
salads, and the seed of the Black Mustard ($. nigra) fur- 
nishes the well-known condiment. Both are hardy annual 
Cruciferous plants, and succeed in any good common 
loam, but where sow T n in September to stand the winter, 



376 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 

as is common in the South for early greens, the soil should 
be rather dry. White mustard may be sown any time of 
the year for a salad, in the same manner as cress, which 
see. It must be used Avhen the seed-leaf is just expanded, 
for if it gets into the rough leaf it is fit for nothing but 
greens. For use, cut them oft' with a sharp knife. They 
should be used soon after gathering. Mustard for greens 
or for seed should be sown broadcast or in drills eighteen 
inches apart, to be finally thinned to about a foot in the 
drill. The leaves at the South are gathered the latter part 
of winter or in early spring. Keep the ground free from 
weeds. When grown for seed, gather when the pods 
change color, and thresh when dry. 

Besides the White and Black species there are several 
varieties which are used in many portions of the South. 
The Southern giant curled is most popular. 

Use. — The tender leaves of both species are used for 
salads, and should be more cultivated for this purpose. 
They are also much cultivated for greens. The seeds 
of the white variety, ground, form the Durham or London 
table mustard, but the flower of the black sort is that from 
which our American table mustard is, or ought to be, 
made. The seeds may be ground in a common spice mill 
or crushed by a roller on a table. In this country the flour 
is usually sifted after grinding, but the French do not 
separate the husk, and thus make a brownish flour, more 
powerful and palatable than the other. Mustard is a very 
agreeable condiment, assisting digestion and promoting 
appetite. The seed used whole is an excellent seasoning 
to various kinds of pickles. It is also much used in medi- 
cine, both by the faculty and in domestic practice. It is 
an acrid stimulant, and in large quantities acts as an 
emetic. The proper dose for the latter is from a teaspoon- 
ful to a tablespoonful in a glass of water. Mustard is a 
local excitant applied to the skin in a cataplasm, made of 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 377 

che ground meal with vinegar or lukewarm water. // 
mixed with boiling water the acrid principle will not be de- 
veloped. 

NASTURTIUM, or INDIAN CRESS. 
(Tropceolum majus and T. minus.) 

There are two species — the Large Nasturtium (T. 
majus) and the small Nasturtium (T. minus) — both from 
Peru, where they are perennials, but are here treated as 
annuals. The large species was introduced into England 
in 1681. The stalks are long and trailing; the leaves have 
their petioles fixed at the center. Flowers helmet-shaped, 
of a rich, brilliant orange, and continue from their first 
appearance all summer; and if not so common would be 
thought very beautiful. The small sort is preferable for 
the garden, being productive and needing no support. 

Culture. — Nasturtiums flourish in a moist soil, but do 
best in a good, fresh loam. If the soil is too rich the plants 
are luxuriant, but do not bear so abundantly, and the 
fruit is of inferior flavor. Give them an open situation. 
Sow in spring when the ground gets warm; put the seeds 
an inch deep and four inches apart, covering them three- 
fourths of an inch. The seed must be of the preceding 
year's growth. They may be sown by the side of a fence 
or trellis. If more than one row is sown, they should be at 
least four feet apart. Thin the plants, when they are well 
up, to a foot in the drill. Hoe the ground well, and keep 
down the weeds. If sown in the open ground, support 
them as you would peas with lattice or brush. Give the 
plants a little assistance in fastening themselves to the 
trellis. Water in dry weather. Gather the fruit when 
full grown, but while still fresh and green. 

For Seed. — Let some of the berries mature, gather them 
as they ripen, spread them to dry and harden, and store 
in paper bags. 



378 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Use. — The flowers and young leaves are used in salads, 
and have a warm taste like water cress. The flowers are 
used in garnishing dishes. The fruit, gathered green and 
pickled, forms an excellent substitute for capers. 

OKRA. — ( 11 ihiscus esculentus.) 

This is an annual Malvaceous plant, a native of the 
West Indies, and much esteemed and cultivated wherever 
its merits are known. There are several varieties — the 
round, smooth green, and the long fluted or ribbed white, 
which grow tall , also the dwarf. There is no great differ- 
ence in quality, but the dwarf sort is best for gardens. 
The White Velvet is a prolific bearer, and well suited to 
the South. It has extra large smooth white pods in abun- 
dance. 

Okra likes a good, dry soil. Any soil will produce it 
that is good enough for the cotton plant, which belongs to 
the same natural family. The pods are not as pleasant nor 
as early on over-rich soil. It is not planted until the frosts 
are over, as it is tender, though it often comes up from 
self-sown seed. The time of planting cotton or snap beans 
is a very good guide, though some may be put in as an 
experiment two weeks earlier. Make the drills three feet 
apart, sow the seed rather thinly, and thin out to two feet 
apart in the drill. Those thinned out may be transplanted 
and will make productive plants. No seed should be 
allowed to ripen on those stalks from which the pods are 
gathered for eating. As fast as the pods become hard or 
unfit for use, cut them off, for if left on, the stalk will 
cease to be productive. If not allowed to ripen seed, the 
plants will continue bearing through the season. The 
dwarf okra may stand about fifteen inches apart in the 
drill, and it is well when any plant begins to fail in pro- 
ductiveness to cut it down to a foot from the ground, and 
it will soon throw up bearing shoots. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 379 

To Save Seed. — Leave some of the earliest plants to 
ripen seed, if you would have this vegetable in good sea- 
son. Shell out the seed, and stow away in paper bags. 

Use. — The pods gathered in a green state, and so tender 
as to snap easily in the fingers, are the parts employed in 
cooking. If old, they are worthless. They are very 
wholesome, considerably nutritious, very mucilaginous, 
jind impart an agreeable richness to soups, sauces, and 
stews. They are also simply boiled in salt and water, and 
served up with butter, pepper, etc. Okra can be preserved 
for winter use by putting down the pods in salt like 
cucumbers, or by cutting them into thin slices and drying- 
like peaches. When dry, put up in paper bags. 

THE ONION.— (A Ilium Cepa.) 

The genus Allium contains several of the most useful 
plants of our gardens. In it, besides the proper onions, 
are included the Garlic, Leek, Rocambole Shallots, and 
("hives, which are treated of in their several places. 

Varieties. — There is a great number of varieties of 
onions, among which are: 

Yellow Strasburg. — Large yellow, oval; often a lit- 
tle flattened, very hardy; keeps exceedingly well. Best 
for winter use at the South. Flavor strong. 

Yelloav Danvers. — Middle size, roundish oblate; neck 
slender; skin yellowish-brown; earh' and good; keeps 
well. 

Silver-Skinned. — Of smaller size, but finer flavor, sil- 
very white, flat, and very much used for pickling on ac- 
count of its handsome appearance and mild flavor. 

Red and White Bermuda. — These are foreign varie- 
ties, and they possess good qualities. Tin 1 red Bermuda 
is a very early onion. The white is a good-sized flat onion 
of fine quality. 



380 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



White Queen. — A silver-skinned onion and excellent 
for pickling; a rapid grower; very early and fine quality. 

Large Red Wethersfield. — The skin is red, while 
the interior is white; flavor strong, and the keeping quali- 
ties are excellent; an early 
variety and a heavy yielder. 

Prize Taker and Giant 
Rocca. — The first is a Spanish 
and the latter an Italian variety.. 
Both produce large onions. The 
Prize Taker has a yellow and the 
Giant Rocca a red skin. The 
flavor is good in the case of each, 
The first is a fine onion for the 




mm 

Fig. 137— Potato Onion. 



and the flesh is tender 
South. 

Extra Early Red. — A very early onion growing to a 
medium size; close grained and solid. 

Southport White Globe. — Globular onion of a mild 
flavor and good keeping quali- 
ties. Highly prized in some sec- 
tions of the South. 

Potato Onion. — This derives 
its name from forming a number 
of bulbs on the parent root be- 
neath the surface of the soil. It 
ripens early, but does not keep 
until spring. A sub-variety with 
smaller bulbs is said to produce 
bulbs on the stem like the top 
onion. It is very prolific, and 
affords a supply before other kinds are ready. Plant the 
offsets in rows a foot apart, and ten inches in the row, 
three inches deep, from October to March. 




Fig. 138— Top Onion. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 381 

Top or Tree Onion {Allium Gepa. var. viviparum). — Is 
said to have originated in Canada. It produces little 
bulbs (" buttons") at the top of the seed stems; hence its 
name " Tree Onion." This is the easiest to manage of any 
of the onions; is of good, mild flavor, early and productive 
with little care, so that it is a favorite in climates too cold 
and too warm for the other varieties. Plant the buttons 
from October to March in drills one foot apart and six 
inches in the drill. Plant the apex of the button just 
beneath the surface of the soil. The small top bulbs are 
fine for pickling. 

Ciboule or Welsh Onion (Allium fistulosum). — Of two 
kinds — white and red; is quite distinct from the common 
onion, and does not bulb. It is sown in September for 
drawing early in spring. Flavor strong, very hardy. 

Thompson describes twenty sorts of onion, of which the 
foregoing are the best. Of these the first two and the top 
onion are to be preferred for general use. 

Culture. — The method of cultivating the onion has 
undergone quite a change since 1867, when this work was 
passing through its second edition. Then it was the uni- 
versal custom in the South to raise onions from seeds 
planted immediately in the open garden, where the crop 
was to be matured. The sowing was done in February in 
beds richly manured, and the plants matured the onions 
about May or June. This method is still in practice in 
some localities, but generally it is now superseded by 
what is known as the "New Onion Culture." This method 
consists in sowing the seeds in cold frames in December 
or in hot-beds in January, and as soon as the young- 
plants produce bulbs one-quarter of an inch in diameter, 
and when the season is far enough advanced, they are 
transplanted in the field or garden in rows two feet apart 
and three to four inches in the rows. This method of cul- 



382 GARDENING FOB, THE SOUTH. 

tivation insures extra size to the onion, earliness in the 
crops and an improvement in the flavor. 

The transplanting is rapidly accomplished by the use 
of a dibble, made of a piece of wood one inch square and 
six inches long, shaved to a flat point at one end, and a 
cross piece fastened to the other for a handle. A line is 
stretched and the seedlings are planted by pressing the 
dibble in the soil and pushing from the person, inserting 
the plant in a vertical position, removing the dibble and 
firming the earth about the plant. Very rapid work can be 
accomplished in this manner, and a great many plants 
can be transplanted from the frames to the garden in a 
day. In the use of the hot-beds it will be necessary to 
harden the plants before transplanting by opening the 
frames during mild days in February or a short time 
before the plants are taken up, in order to harden them 
and accustom them to the change. When the plants are 
to be cultivated with the plow it will be best to make the 
rows three feet apart. 

The onion requires a rich, friable soil and a situation 
enjoying the full influence of the sun, and free from the 
shade and drip of trees. If the soil be poor or exhausted, 
an abundance of manure should be applied some time 
before planting and thoroughly incorporated with it; for 
rank, unreduced dung is injurious, engendering decay. 
If applied at the time of planting, the manure must be 
thoroughly decomposed, and turned in only to a moderate 
depth. If the ground be tenacious, sand, or better still, 
charcoal-dust, is advantageous; ashes and soot are par- 
ticularly beneficial. Common salt, at the rate of six to 
eight bushels per acre, is an excellent application to this 
family of plants. In digging the ground, small spadefuls 
should be turned over at a time that the texture may be 
well broken and pulverized. 

An analysis of the onion shows that it takes from the 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 383 

soil potash, phosphoric acid and nitrogen, so that it will 
be necessary to apply a fertilizer which has these in- 
gredients in its composition. The following formula will 
be found sufficient for an acre of good average land, 
where the rows are one foot apart; if two feet apart one- 
half the quantity will suffice: 

Phosphoric acid 600 pounds. 

Muriate of potash 200 pounds. 

Cotton-seed meal 1,000 pounds. 

Nitrate of soda 200 oounds. 

The onion can be grown in great perfection in the 
South, and it does not require a change of soil, being an 
exception to the general rule that plants like a rotation, 
as they have been grown in Scotland a century on the 
same land without any diminution of the crop. Of course, 
the land must be kept well fertilized with stable manure, 
or where commercial fertilizers are alone used it will be 
necessary to turn under a crop of pea-vines now and then 
to give the needed humus. A top dressing of unleached 
ashes before the onions are planted will be found very 
beneficial. The ashes must be incorporated with the soil 
thoroughly before transplanting. Nitrate of soda applied 
broadcast after the plants have begun to grow well will 
add much to the value <>t the crop. 

It is a good plan to make the beds just wide enough for 
throe rows, s;iy thirty inches wide, with a narrow alley 
between, which may be filled with sweet corn or cabbages 
after the crop is laid by. 

But in common gardens beds four feet wide and the 
rows thereon twelve to fourteen inches wide are most con- 
venient. The soil of the beds must be finely dug, the sur- 
face rolled smooth, and all the clods beat fine that may 
have escaped the spade. The drills should be drawn very 
shallow, as the best onions grow upon the* surface of the 
ground. For this reason, it is well to roll the bed, or beat 



384 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

it smooth with the back of the spade, before making the 
drills. lu seeding in the open garden do not sow very 
thickly — only one or two seeds in a place. A seed every 
inch is quite thick enough, as thinning out, when too 
thick, is apt to injure the remainder. Cover the seeds 
about half an inch with fine sifted soil, and press down 
the earth upon them by a roller, or walking over them on 
a plank. 

When they come up, thin them out gradually in the 
drills to six inches apart. Keep the bed clean and free 
from weeds, and stir it frequently, but not deeply, with a 
hoe. Do not hill the earth up against the bulbs; but draw 
it away from them with the fingers, as they keep better 
if grown pretty much above the ground. There is no 
crop more easily raised or preserved, if the ground is rich 
enough, and the bulbs made to grow upon the surface. 
After the young onions have got a good start, it is best 
to drop the hoe entirely and resort to hand-weeding. In 
dry weather, a thorough drenching in weak liquid ma- 
nure, or soapsuds, is excellent. For pickling, the white 
kind should be sown much more thickly, and thinned out 
until about one or two inches apart in the row, which will 
cause them to ripen early, before they have become too 
large. 

If onions grow thick-necked, and do not bulb properly, 
bend down the stems about two inches above the neck, to 
the ground, without disturbing the roots. This is needful 
only in very wet seasons. 

When the crop is ready for harvesting, it is known by 
the drying up and change of color of the stems. 

To Preserve Them. — Pull them on a dry day, dry them 
thoroughly in the shade, and stow them in a loft where 
they can have plenty of air. When thoroughly dry they 
can be strung in ropes, made by braiding the tops to- 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 385 

gether. From two to live hundred bushels per acre is 
the usual crop. 

For Seed. — Select the largest aud finest bulbs and plant 
out in the fall about twelve inches apart, in beds of com- 
mon garden soil, not too rich. Keep them free from weeds; 
and when they throw up seed stalks support them by 
poles laid horizontally on stakes, six or eight inches above 
the surface of the beds. Home-grown seed from good 
bulbs is as good as the best imported. It will keep three 
years, but the fresh grown seeds are preferable. Onion 
buttons are grown in the same manner upon the Top 
Onion. 

I st. — Onions are among the most useful products of the 
garden. They arc used especially as a flavoring ingredient 
and seasoning for soups, meats, and sauces; for which 
purpose they have been employed from time immemorial. 
They contain considerable nutriment, and are tolerably 
wholesome, especially if boiled. Onions, like all other 
vegetables, need to be slightly salted while cooking, or their 
sweetness will be mostly lost. Haw, they are not very 
digestible, and they are the same if fried or roasted. Eat- 
ing a few leaves of parsley will destroy in a measure the 
unpleasant smell they impart to the breath. 

Marketing. — The early crop should be gathered in 
March, tied five or more in a bunch, and packed in crates. 
With this early green crop the tops are left on, but with 
the later dried onions the tops are cut off before packing. 

ORACH. — ( . I triplex TToricnsh. ) 

A hardy annual, of the same natural family as the beel 
and Jerusalem oak (Chenopodiaceoe), a native of Tartary, 
and first cultivated by English gardeners in 1548. The 
stem rises three or four feet high, with oblong, variously 
shaped leaves, cut at the edges, thick, pale green, 
and glaucous, and of slightly acid flavor; flowers of 

25 



386 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

same color as the foliage. There are two varieties — the 
pale green and the red or purple leaved, the latter of 
which is just now coming into fashion as an ornamental 
plant, on account of the tine color of its foliage. 

Culture— Orach flourishes best in a rich, moist soil. 
It is raised from seed sown in drills, fifteen to eighteen 
inches apart. Sow very early in spring, or in October, 
which is a good time in mild climates. Two or three 
sowings may be made in spring for a succession. The 
plants soon make their appearance; when an inch high 
thin them to four inches asunder. Those removed may 
be replanted, being watered occasionally until estab- 
lished. Hoe them in a dry day, keeping the ground loose 
and free from weeds. Once established, it sows itself. 

Use. — The leaves and tender stalks are cooked and 
eaten like spinach, to which they are preferred by many. 
They must be gathered while young, or they are worth- 
less. The seed should be gathered before fully ripe, as 
they are liable to be blown away by wind. 

PARSLEY. — { Petroselinum sativum.) 

Parsley is a hardy, biennial, Umbelliferous plant from 
Sardinia. There are two varieties used in garnishing — 
the common parsley, with plain leaves, which is the 
hardier sort, and the Champion Moss Curled, which is 
much handsomer and longer in running to seed. 

The Market Gardeners' Parsley is a variety quite popu- 
lar, the leaves of which are beautifully curled. 

The Neapolitan or Celery-leaved is grown by the 
French for the leaf-stalks, which they blanch and use like 
celery. 

The Hamburg Parsley (var. latifolium) is cultivated for 
its fleshy roots, which are eaten like parsnips. 

Parsley is raised only from seed, which may be sown 
in autumn or spring, until the weather and soil are too 



[VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



387 



dry and hot, when it will come up readily. It is best to 
sow it pretty early, as the seed remains long in the soil 
before vegetating. The beds must be made annually, if 
the plants are allowed to run to seed; but if the seed 
stalks are cut down as often as they rise, the plants will 
last many years. Many sow parsley as an edging to other 
beds or compartments. If in beds, it is better to sow in 
drills ten inches 
apart. Any good 
garden soil is rich 
enough for this 
plant. Pulverize 
the bed by thor- 
ough spading, and 
rake it level before 
making the drills. 
Sow the seed mode- 
rately t h i c k in 
drills half an inch 
deep, and press fine 
soil upon it. The 
plants will not 
come up in less 
than three or four, 
and sometimes six 
weeks. If sown 




Fig. 139— Market Gardener's Parsley. 



late give it a shady border. Should the bed get weedy 
before the parsley appears pull the intruders out by hand. 
As soon as the rows can be seen, hoe between them, and 
draw a rake crosswise to break the crust which has been 
formed, and the plants will grow vigorously. They will 
be fit for use when two or three inches high. When they 
get strong thin them out to three inches, and finally to 
nine inches apart, being careful to reject all plants from 



388 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

the seed-bed that are not nicely curled. If they grow too 
rank in summer, cut them near the collar. 

A bed six feet long by four feet wide is large enough for 
almost any family. It is best to appropriate to it such a 
bed, where it will sow itself and yield a constant succes- 
sion of new plants. The plants should have the stems cut 
down, if growing rank, three or four weeks before heavy 
frosts are expected, that fresh growth may be thrown up 
for winter and early spring use. It is well to protect the 
plants with a little coarse litter in cold climates, but this 
is not necessary south of Virginia. 

To Save Seeds. — Allow some of the finest curled plants 
to throw up seed-stalks; let them stand eighteen inches 
apart; when the seed ripens it may be stored in a dry 
place. It will keep good several years, and it is singular 
that seed four years old will come up more quickly than 
that gathered six months before sowing. 

Use. — Parsley is a very agreeable and useful plant, 
affording a beautiful garnish. It is also used for its 
aromatic properties in seasoning soups, stews and meats. 
The green leaves eaten raw diminish the unpleasant smell 
of the breath after eating leeks and onions. It can be 
dried in summer, pounded fine, and put away in bottles; 
but this is of no use in mild climates, where fresh green 
parsley can be had all winter from the garden. 

PARSNIP. — ( Pastinacea sativa.) 

This is a hardy, biennial, Umbelliferous plant, of which 
the wild variety is found in various parts of Europe, and 
it is not rare in this country as a weed. It has long been 
cultivated. In its wild state, it is said to have poisonous 
properties; but it is rendered by cultivation sweet, pala- 
table, and very nutritious for man and beast. The garden 
parsnips have smooth and light-green leaves, while those 
of the wild varietv are dark-green and hairy; but the two 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



380 



do not differ so much as the wild and cultivated carrot. 
By teu years' culture Professor Buckinan, in England, 
succeeded in producing the garden variety from the wild 
sort. This plant is of the hardiest nature, being improved 
by remaining in the ground ex- 
posed to frost during the winter. 
The best variety for the garden is 
the Hollow-Crown or Sugar Pars- 
nip. Its roots are smoother, more 
handsome, and better flavored 
than the other varieties. It is 
distinguished by the cavity which 
crowns the root. 

Parsnips like a rich, sandy 
loam, the more deeply dug the 
better. They do exceedingly well 
on rich bottom lands, but do not 
succeed well in stiff clays. The 
manure should be applied to a 
previous crop. 

Parsnip seed can be sown any 
time in spring before the hot, dry 
weather comes on, which will 
prevent it from vegetating freely. 
Scatter the seed thinly in drills 
fifteen inches apart, and when 
the plants appear, thin them to 
ten or twelve inches asuil( l el . Fig. HO-Ideal Hollow-Crown 

Parsnip. 
The culture in other respects 

is the same as that of the beet. The roots in cold 
climates are taken up and stored, if required for use in 
frosty weather, but the flavor is improved by exposure to 
the winter frosts, and they are commonly left where 
grown until spring, when, if taken up before growth com- 
mences, they will keep some weeks. 




390 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 

For Seed. — A few of the best roots may be taken up 
and set out two feet apart in a border; but they do better 
to remain undisturbed. The seeds cannot be depended 
on for more than one year. 

Use. — The parsnip is a very wholesome and nourishing- 
root, though its peculiar sweetish taste is disliked by 
many persons. It is, however, an agreeable addition to 
our supply of winter vegetables. Its fattening properties 
are great, and it is therefore an excellent root for feeding- 
all kinds of farm stock. Cows fed upon it will yield milk 
abundantly, and butter of the best quality. 

PEA. — (Pisum sativum.) 

This is a hardy Leguminous annual, probably from the 
Levant, where the gray field variety is found wild, but it 
has been cultivated from time immemorial. It is a climb- 
ing plant, producing its seeds in pods, which usually grow 
in pairs. The pea is now one of the most desirable culi- 
nary plants. Numerous varieties have been originated, 
differing in the color of the blossoms, height, time of 
ripening, and also in productiveness. Among the best are: 
Alpha, American Wonder, Yorkshire Hero, Horsford's 
Market Garden, Champion of England, Premium Gem, 
which are wrinkled peas. The earliest of these are Alpha, 
American Wonder, Premium Gem. Other varieties of 
very early peas are Alaska, Daniel O'Rourke, Eclipse, 
Tom Thumb. Some of the best late peas are Champion of 
England, Horsford Market Garden, Blackeyed Marrow- 
fat, White Marrowfat, Yorkshire Hero, Pride of the Mar- 
ket. All these varieties have been tested by the experi- 
ment stations, and were found to be well suited to the 
climate of the South. The Blackeyed Marrowfat seems 
to bear the summer's heat better than most kinds, and is 
good flavor. The Alpha and Alaska are the earliest 
varieties of those mentioned. The following are dwarf 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTUEE. 30 1 

varieties: Alaska, Alpha, American Wonder, Daniel 
OTfourke, Premium Gem, and Tom Thumb. 

The Sugar Peas are without the tough interior lining 
to the pod when young, and they will snap in two as 
readily as the pod of the kidney bean. There are two 
sorts — the Dwarf Sugar, about three feet high, with 
small crooked pods; and the Large Crooked Sugar, with 
large, broad, flat, crooked pods. The stems grow about 
six feet high. 

As some families prefer white, others blue, some dwarf, 
and others tall sorts, it will not be difficult to make a 
selection from the foregoing list. There are some fifty 
sorts in the catalogues, but many of them are synonyms. 

Potash and phosphoric acid are large constituents of 
the ash of the pea. Ashes and bone-dust, or super-phos- 
phate of lime, especially the former, are likely to be the 
special manures most needed. 

Culture. — A moderately rich and dry calcareous loam 
is best suited for the early pea and the dwarf varieties. 
The late peas and the lofty growers do better in heavier 
soil, and a cool moist situation. The manure should be 
applied early the preceding autumn, to be well reduced 
by the time the crop of peas is ready to feed upon it. In 
poor ground, fresh stable manure is better than none. 
If the ground, however, be extremely rich, there will be 
more vines than fruit. The soil must be deep, so that the 
roots may penetrate deeply to obtain moisture in time of 
drought, that the vines may not mildew. If the vines 
mildew or get too dry after they begin to blossom, the 
pods will not fill well. On this account it is found to be 
of advantage to plant in a furrow some six inches deep, 
as they continue much longer in bearing than when 
planted shallow. 

The early crop may be planted as soon as the ground 
will do to work in the spring. And in the Cotton States, 



o92 GARDENING FOE. THE SOUTH. 

where the winters are mild, American Wouder and Pre- 
mium Gem peas may be planted from the last of Novem- 
ber until March ; Horsford's Market Garden, etc., in 
February; and the later kinds until early in April, and 
for a fall crop in August to come into use in October. 

Near New York city they are planted from as early in 
March as the ground opens, until late in May. The dis- 
tance of the rows apart will depend upon the variety. 
They should not be nearer to each other than the height 
to which the sort planted generally attains. Tom Thumb 
may be planted only fifteen inches apart from row to row, 
but as it is a branching sort, the plants may be five or six 
inches in the row. It is usual to plant in double rows, 
from nine to twelve inches asunder, leaving the distance 
above directed between each pair of rows. The sticks 
are set midway between the double rows, supporting 
the vines of both. It is maintained by many that from 
its more full exposure to the air and sun a single row will 
produce as much as two. The tall later sorts are far more 
fruitful if the rows are put twenty or thirty feet apart, 
and the space between occupied with other crops. 

It is best to plant the early crop in rows running east 
and west, that the sun may warm the ridge of soil drawn 
up to the roots; but the rows of the main crop should run 
north and south. Early peas should be planted in the 
drills, about an inch apart; the medium growers an inch 
and a half; while for the tall kinds two inches are not 
too much. A quart of seed of these varieties will plant 
not quite fifty yards of double rows, while a quart of early 
peas will plant nearly seventy yards twice as thickly. 
The soil with which they are covered should be chopped 
fine, if lumpy, and in planting pressed upon the seed. 
Better delay a little than plant when the ground is wet. 
After the peas are about two inches high, hoe them well, 
drawing the earth a little toward them, and loosening the 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 393 

soil between the drills, destroying every weed. Repeat 
this once or twice before brushing, which should be done 
when the plants are six or eight inches high, or as soon 
as the tendrils appear. This may be done by sharpened 
branches of trees prepared fan-shaped, and of a height 
proper for the pea to which they are to be applied, or 
stakes may be driven down every six feet each side of the 
drills, and lines of twine stretched from one to the other. 
Pea brush is, however, the best, as the vines la}' hold of it 
more readily. It should be placed firmly in the ground 
between the drills. After brushing, draw up the earth on 
each side to help support the vine. Market gardeners do 
not employ brush or twine, but let them fall over and ' 
bear what they will. This does tolerably well with the 
early varieties, if the spaces between the rows be filled 
with straw or leaves. 

Teas are forced by planting under glass in pots, to be 
transplanted, when the season permits; but in mild lati- 
tudes this is needless, as the pea, when young will survive 
a temperature but two degrees above zero if not in a state 
of rapid growth. If a hard frost occur when the plants 
are in bloom the crop is lost. 

Seed. — The plants of the rows intended for seed should 
not be gathered from for any other purpose. When the 
pods begin to dry, gather and dry them thoroughly, and 
store the seed in bottles, pouring into each a little spirits 
of turpentine, as directed for preserving beans. 

Some think that peas are earlier if the seed has been 
obtained from a more northern locality than the one in 
which they are planted. The garden pea is very whole- 
some, and an almost universal favorite. To have them in 
perfection, they should be freshly gathered, and by no 
means allowed to stand over night before use. They can 
be shelled and dried in the shade, and form a tolerably 
agreeable dish in winter, but they are much inferior to 



394. GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 

those freshly picked. Green or dry they are very nutri 
tious, abounding in hesh-forming constituents. 

Marketing. — In the far South peas are gathered for 
the market in March, at the time when a good price can 
be obtained if the pods are carefully picked and neatly 
packed. Do not pick until the pods are well filled and 
reject all those which are discolored or over-ripe. Tack 
in bushel crates. Fill the crates above the top and press 
the tops on firmly, so that the peas will be securely packed 
and the packages will be full when they reach their desti- 
nation 

PEPPER.— (Capsicum.) 

This genus (Capsicum) of plants belongs to the Solanurn 
family, and several species are in cultivation, all of which 
are natives of tropical regions. Some of them have been 
cultivated in England three hundred years, C. annum, or 
Guinea Pepper, having been introduced there in 1548. 
Those most in use are : 

Bell Pepper. — This was brought from India in 1759 — 
of low growth, with large, red, bell-shaped fruit. Its thick 
and pulpy skin renders it best for pickles; more mild than 
most varieties. It is a biennial. 

Cayenne, or Long Pepper. — Is a perennial, with 
small, round, bright red, tapering fruit, extremely pun- 
gent. Of this there is a large and small fruited sort, both 
excellent for pepper sauce, and to grind as a condiment. 

Large Sweet Spanish is a large, mild variety of an- 
nual pepper, much used in pickling. 

Tomato Pepper is of two sorts, red and yellow, both 
tolerably mild; fruit tomato shaped. 

Culture. — Capsicum likes a rich, moist loam, rather 
light than otherwise. Guano and fowl manure are excel- 
lent fertilizers for peppers. 

For early plants, sow the seed in drills, one inch deep 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 395 

and six inches apart, under glass, in February, and trans- 
plant after the frosts are entirely over, when three or 
four inches high, into good soil, in rows eighteen inches 
apart each way. Sow also in the open ground as soon as 
the settled warm weather comes on, say the last of March 
or first of April, and thin them out to the proper distance. 
An ounce of seed will give two or three thousand plants. 
They should be transplanted in moist weather only, and 
must be watered until well established. Shading a few 
days at midday, after transplanting, is very beneficial. 
Cultivate and earth up their stems a little. 

Seed. — A plant bearing the earliest and finest fruit 
should be selected. The varieties should be grown as far 
apart as possible. When ripe, the pods are hung up to 
dry, and kept until the seed is wanted for sowing. 

I .sr. — These plants are very much used in all hot 
climates, where they enter as a seasoning into almost 
every dish. The large kinds for pickling should be gath- 
ered when full grown, and just before turning red. They 
are also dried when ripe, and used for seasoning. Cayenne 
and the other small kinds are ground for table use, or 
made into pepper sauce by the addition of strong vinegar. 
Peppers are often rubbed upon meat to drive away in- 
sects. The daily use of this plant in hot climates is 
decidedly a preventive of bowel complaints, for which 
reason it is so universally cultivated in tropical regions. 

Marketing. — Cut the peppers with short stems, so they 
will not dry out too soon and ship in vegetable crates. 

POTATO (IRISH.) — (Solatium tuberosum.) 

The Irish potato is a perennial plant, with a tuberous, 
subterranean stem, of the same genus with the eggplant, 
and nearly allied to the tomato. It is reported to have 
been brought into England from Virginia by Raleigh in 
1586, but as he never visited Virginia, he probably ob- 



396 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

tained it from some other portion of this continent. 
Though called the Irish potato, it is really a native of 
the western coast of South America, where it is still found 
wild, both "on dry, sterile mountains, and in damp forests 
near the sea," whence roots have recently been obtained 
differing very little from the cultivated varieties. Not- 
withstanding its excellence and complete adaptation to 
the English climate, it appears to have come slowly into 
use. Raleigh planted it on his Irish estate near Cork, but 
it is only within about a hundred years that its culture 
has been general, even in Ireland. In 1780 very few indi- 
viduals in America raised as large a crop as five bushels. 
Of the numerous varieties now used the best, perhaps, 
for garden culture in the South are the following: 

Early Varieties. — Beauty of Hebron, Pride of the 
South, Triumph, and Earl}' Essex. 

Medium Varieties. — Early Rose, Early Puritan, and 
Late Beauty of Hebron. 

Late Varieties. — Burbank, Cannon No. 1, Peerless, 
Pearl of Savoy, Rural New Yorker No. 2, and Rochester. 

At the South a potato is required that will continue 
growing through the long summer. The common sorts 
ripen early, and commence new growth, so that it is very 
difficult to keep them in their dry, mealy state. Starting 
the buds has the same effect upon these tubers as upon 
the grains of wheat which lose their starch by conversion 
into sugar and dextrine, making both the flour and tuber, 
when cooked, far less palatable and nourishing. 

Potash and phosphate of magnesia are indicated by 
analysis to be the most important inorganic elements of 
the plant. Wood ashes will furnish most of the constit- 
uents required from the soil. 

Culture. — The Irish potato likes a cool, moist climate 
and soil like those of Ireland. The soil should be well 
enriched with vegetable and not with animal manure. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AA'D CULTURE. l'>\) t 

The best potatoes in this country are grown in the cool 
and hilly sections of the North, and the best there are 
.mown by simply turning- over a meadow sward; upon this 
the rows are laid off shallow, and the clover sods are often 
so tough with matted roots when planting (having been 
newly turned over), that earth is with difficulty obtained 
to cover the potatoes. Soon decomposition commences, 
a gentle heat is given out, and by the time the potatoes 
arc ready for the first working they can be plowed with 
ease. At the second working, when the plants are laid 
by, the soil is mellow as an ash heap, the young plant the 
meanwhile being supplied with moisture and the very 
food required to perfect its tubers and render them fari- 
naceous and nutritive. In our gardens we cannot obtain 
such a soil, but Ave can very much improve the yield, and 
especially the quality of our Irish potatoes by imitating 
it as nearly as possible. We can dig into the soil vegetable 
matter to decompose, such as leaves, garden refuse of all 
kinds, and pine straw. Even tan bark is not a bad appli- 
cation to the potato crop, but if used must be accompanied 
with plenty of ashes or lime to correct its acidity. One 
reason for the application of vegetable manure to this 
plant is the superior quality of the tubers produced. 
Liebig first remarked that ammoniacal manures injure 
the quality of the potato, though they increase the size 
and quantity. If manured with strong animal manure 
the tubers are moist and waxy, while if grown upon a soil 
manured with ashes, lime, and an abundant supply of car- 
bonaceous manures, such as decaying vegetable matter, 
the produce is far more starchy and nutritive. Potatoes 
enriched with strong dung are far more liable to rot than 
if manured with leaves, ashes, and lime. Cotton-seed 
meal is an excellent fertilizer for the potato. It produces 
smooth potatoes. The application is at the rate of S00 
to 1,000 pounds per acre in the furrows. 



398 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

The rows should be from two to two and a half feet 
asunder, and the sets from six to twelve inches in the 
row, the greater distances for the tall-growing sorts. 
Experiments in England have proved that there the best 
crops are secured when the sets are planted six inches 
deep, or in light sandy soil not less than seven inches. 
The sets should be cut a week before planting, and 
allowed to dry. A medium-sized tuber will make five or 
six sets. After the ground has been well prepared by 
plowing or spading, dig a trench eight inches deep, the 
width of the spade, and in the bottom of this form a slight 
furrow with a hoe, that the sets may be in a line. In this 
furrow the sets are placed. Cover with a good coat of 
manure of the kinds before directed, to which manipu- 
lated guano, or super-phosphate of lime and gypsum, may 
be added with advantage. The earth is hauled over them, 
leaving the surface some two or three inches below the 
general level, that the plants may receive and retain 
near them all the rain that falls. After the plants come 
ui> hoe them well, but do not disturb the ground if there 
is any apprehension of even a slight frost. When all 
danger of frost is over, they should, if possible, receive 
a good mulching of leaves directly after a good, heavy 
rain, and some trash may be laid over to keep the leaves 
in place. The leaves must not be put on too early, as 
when applied before the frosts are entirely over the 
evaporation from a bed of damp leaves so lowers the tem- 
perature at their surface that a frost scarcely perceptible 
elsewhere may prove fatal to tender plants thus mulched. 

If the leaves are not to be obtained, keep the soil free 
from weeds by flat culture, until the tops cover the 
ground. The early crop may alternate with Lima beans, 
making the rows five feet apart in this case, and they will 
be ready for digging when the beans, w T hich are planted 
in hills between the potato rows, are fit for use. This crop 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 399 

should be planted as early in the spring as possible. At 
the South in January or February, and at the North in 
March or April. The main crop may be put in three or 
four weeks later, but the early planted crops (if they 
escape the spring frosts) are best. In colder climates the 
sets are often kept iu a warm room covered with damp 
moss until the}' have grown a half inch, and then if 
plauted out without being dried, in a warm situation, are 
considerably earlier. A teaspoouful of gypsum dusted 
over the plauts when they appear above ground is very 
beneficial. Never work the crop after the blossom buds 
appear. 

When the tops begin to die, dig the crop, and store in a 
cool, dry place. Sprinkle them with lime when dug, and 
they are less in danger of rot. This disease often attacks 
them while growing, beginniug at the haulm, aud de- 
scending to the tubers, which soon become a mass of rot- 
tenness. If potatoes are allowed to remain in the ground 
until they begin to grow, they become waxy and worth- 
less, and those that are stored will not remain eatable, 
unless the sprouts are rubbed off as they appear. 

Second Crop of Potatoes. — It has been the practice in the 
South for many years, particularly in some sections, to 
grow seed potatoes from the first crop, but the custom has 
been to look to the Northern-grown potato for the supply. 
It needs no demonstration to convince an intelligent 
gardener that the potatoes grown in the South are pre- 
ferable to those shipped from a colder climate for seed 
purposes, and the method of securing this end by what 
is known as the second crop is receiving a great deal of 
attention among gardeners. To succeed in this cultivation 
the following plan must be adopted. The potatoes of the 
early crop must be allowed to remain in the soil until 
fully ripe; this can be determined by the dying of the 
tops. They are then dug and placed in the shade, ex- 



400 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

posed to the air until greened, which will generally take 
two or three days. The potatoes are then bedded in single 
layers and covered with straw or two inches of a sandy 
soil without manure. If with straw the bed must be 
dampened and kept so until the sprouts begin to appear. 
They must remain in this condition until August 1st to 
20th, when those which are sprouted are planted in the 
usual way, excepting that shallow covering is obtained 
and flat cultivation instead of high bedding, as is given 
to the early crop. This flat cultivation is to obviate the 
effects of the hot sun during the month of August. In 
well-drained soil the potatoes may be allowed to remain 
in the ground during the winter and dug as required, but 
the earth must be ridged up after the tops are dead, and 
the surface covered with pine straw. In August when the 
planting occurs the potatoes are placed in deep furrows 
and a thin layer of soil is put over them, and as the plants 
grow the earth is drawn to them until the level cultiva- 
tion is secured. When this second crop is intended for 
table-use it will be necessary to plant in July, so that the 
potato may mature by the time of first frost. It is not 
necessary to cut the potato, as is done with the seed of 
the early crop, but the entire potato is planted. 

1 sr. — The tubers of the Irish potato, consisting chiefly 
of starch, and having no peculiarity of taste, approach 
nearer in their nature to the flour of grain than any other 
root. Hence the potato is almost universally liked, and 
can be continually used by the same individual without 
becoming unpalatable. It is a good supporter of respira- 
tion, and adapted for the formation of fat, but is deficient 
in nitrogenous or muscle-forming elements. Sustained 
labor cannot be performed on this diet without the addi- 
tion of other food better adapted to the formation of flesh. 
Potatoes are boiled, baked, roasted, or fried. When long- 
kept, the best ones are selected, boiled and mashed 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 401 

before going to the table. Starch can be manufactured 
from potatoes, as may ardent spirits. 

Marketing. — The potato with an easily bruised skin is 
immature and unlit for shipping. Handle the crop care- 
fully, so that no injury will occur to the surface, and 
harvest only in cloudy weather, or protect the potatoes as 
much as possible from the sun after digging. Pack in 
barrels, and only while the potato is in a cool condition. 

POTATO (SWEET).— (Ipomosa Batatas.) 

This valuable plant, first cultivated in England in 1507 
by Gerard, is the potato mentioned by Shakespeare and 
his cotemporaries, the Irish potato being then scarcely 
known. " Let the sky rain potatoes," says Falstaff, 
alluding to this vegetable, which was at that time im- 
ported into England from Spain and the Canary Islands, 
and considered a great delicacy. The sweet potato is a 
tender perennial plant, of the convolvulaceous family, a 
native of China and both Indies. It has small leaves, with 
three to five lobes, according to the variety, with herba- 
ceous vines which run along the ground, taking root at 
intervals. Its roots are long, spindle-shaped or oval, often 
very large, and abounding in starch and sugar. Its nutri- 
tious properties and agreeable flavor have brought it into 
general use in all parts of the globe, where the climate is 
warm enough to admit of its successful cultivation. The 
following are the most common varieties, and perhaps as 
good as any: 

Barbadoes Bunch yam, Georgia yam, TTayman, rump- 
kin yam, Red Brazilian, Spanish yam, Sugar yam, Ten- 
nessee yam, Yellow yam, Bush or Vineless. These varie- 
ties are quite sweet and not >o dry and starchy as the 
following, which are more popular in Northern markets: 
Early Golden, Bed Nansemond, Jersey, Southern Queen, 
Sugar (Creole). 
2fi 



402 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




Fig- 141— Vineless Sweet Potato. 



The sugar po- 
tatoes are gene- 
rally poor yield- 
ers, but are 
excellent table 
varieties. The 
Tennessee yam 
is a productive 
variety, with a 
sweet, rich, deli- 
cate flavor. It is 
next in quality 
to the Georgia 
yam, but is more 
productive. It is 
a late potato. 

In the above 
list the early po- 
tatoes are Yel- 
low yam, Vine- 
less and Jersey. 
The others are 
Late varieties. 

Culture. 
Sweet pota- 
toes like a rich, 
sandy loam, per- 
f e c 1 1 y friable, 
and, as indi- 
cated by analy- 
sis, abounding 
in potash. The 
soil should be 
well enriched. A 
dressing of 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. t03 

wood ashes would be very beneficial to this crop. Next 
to potash it demands a supply of the phosphates. They 
do well on fresh lands, if well broken up and friable. At 
the South, the Spanish potatoes are generally planted 
where they are to remain, like the Irish potato, whole or 
cut up into sets. But both these may, and the yams must, 
be propagated by slips, as they grow larger and yield 
more abundantly by this method. 

To raise slips, select a sunny spot sheltered by fences 
or buildings, and lay it off in beds four feet wide, with 
alleys of the same width between them; slope the beds a 
little towards the sun, dig them well, and if not already 
rich, add plenty of well-decomposed manure. Do this in 
Georgia* in February, or early in March. At the North a 
gentle hot-bed will be required, and it will be found very 
useful in every locality, in order that the slips may be 
ready as soon as all danger of frost is over. 

Choose smooth and healthy-looking potatoes and lay 
them regularly over the bed an inch or two apart, and 
cover them about three or four inches with line soil; rake 
the bed smooth, and it is done. In large operations, ten 
bushels of potatoes should be bedded for every acre of 
ground. 

While the slips are sprouting prepare the ground to 
receive them. It should be rich, or made so with well 
rotted manure, and thoroughly and deeply broken up 
with the plow or spade. Phosphoric acid and muriate of 
potash at the rate of 400 pounds per acre may be applied 
in the furrows. The formula recommended is 600 pounds 
of phosphoric acid and 200 pounds of muriate of potash. 
Lay off the soil just before the slips are ready in low, 
parallel ridges or beds, the crowns of which are three and 
a half feet asunder, and about six inches high, on which 
plant out the slips with a dibble eighteen inches apart, 
one plant in a place. Choose for this operation such a 



4:04 GARDE1TCNG FOR THE SOUTH. 

day as you would for cabbage plants, or do it iu the 
evening. The sweet potato is readily transplanted, and if 
holes are dug in the mellow bed, deep enough to admit 
the plant, and the slips, set upright therein, have the 
earth washed in about their roots by pouring water upon 
them from the open spout of a water-pot, finishing the 
operation by covering over with a coat of dry, mellow 
earth, brought up and pressed pretty closely about the 
slips to keep the moistened earth from baking, very few 
will die, even if they are set out at midday; but as the 
plants would be checked, a cloudy day, or just at night, 
should be selected for the operation. 

This is an excellent mode of transplanting all plants, 
and is of great use both in the vegetable and flower gar- 
den. If the slips are not washed in as above when taken 
up in dry weather, it is of great advantage to grout them, 
as well as all other plants you wish to transplant. This is 
done by immersing the roots in water thickened with rich 
earth. It refreshes the slips, and gives them a thin coat- 
ing of earth as a protection against the atmosphere. Draw 
the slips when about three or four inches high, by placing 
the left hand on the bed near the sprout to steady the 
root, and prevent its being pulled up with the sprout, 
which is loosened with the right hand, taking care not to 
disturb the fibrous roots of the mother potato, for this 
continues to afford a succession of slips, which may be 
successfully transplanted in Georgia until the first of 
July. At the North they should not be put in later than 
the first of June. 

After the piece is planted, go over it again in a few days 
to plant over any place where the slips may have failed. 
As soon as the ground gets a little weedy, scrape it over, 
loosening the earth and covering up the weeds, but be 
careful not to injure the young slips. Faithful cultivation 
and a frequent moving of the soil are as beneficial to this 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 405 

crop, while young, as to any other. At one of the hoeings 
just, before being laid by, the ground should be deeply 
moved with the plow or spade, but not close to the plants. 
They should be laid by before the plants run a great deal, 
after which they should be undisturbed. Be careful not to 
cover the vines, but if they become attached to the soil, 
loosen them up from it, so that the vigor of the plants 
may be thrown into the roots and not into the running 
•vines. Make the hills large and broad, not pointed. In 
hoeing, draw the vines carefully over towards you while 
you draw up the earth and cover the weeds; then lay 
them carefully back, and finish the other side in the same 
manner. At this time till the spaces between the rows 
with leaves and litter while the ground is wet, to retain 
the moisture. After the vines have covered the ground 
too much to use the hoe, any large weeds that appear 
should be pulled up by hand. 

The Yam potato can also be raised from seed, but the 
Spanish variety, like the sugar cane and many other 
plants long propagated by division, rarely produces seed. 

Just as soou as the tops are killed by frost, the potatoes 
should be gathered. In field crops they can be plowed up 
and gathered by hands which follow the plow, depositing 
the potatoes in small heaps, but in the garden the potato 
can be gathered with the hoe or the potato hook, an im- 
plement much used in gathering crops of the Irish potato. 
It is better to do this in a dry day, and many prefer to 
dig their potatoes just before the frost kills the vines, 
thinking they keep better. 

To keep sweet potatoes it is necessary, at the North, 
to store them in a dry, warm place, in well-dried sand. 
At the South they are safely stored in hills containing 
thirty or forty bushels each. Let the potatoes, when dug, 
dry in the sun through the day. In digging and hand- 
ling thev should not be bruised. Elevate the bottom of 



406 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



the intended pile about six inches with earth, furnished 
by digging around it a circular trench. On this put pine 
straw two or three inches thick, or dry leaves, on which 
place the potatoes piled in a regular cone. If the weather 
is good, cover them only with pine or other straw for two 
or three days, until the potatoes are well dried, before 
their final earthing up. Let the covering of straw be 
three or four inches thick; then cover it over with large 
strips of pine bark, commencing at the base, and cover as 
shingling unto the top, leaving a small aperture. Cover 
four or five inches thick with earth over all, except this 
aperture, which must be left open for the escape of the 
heat and moisture generated within. (I'cabody.) 

Some cover this opening with a piece of pine bark, to 
keep out the rain, but a board shelter is preferable. It is 
well to protect the hills from rain by a temporary roof of 
plank. When the weather gels warm, in the spring, take 
up the potatoes, rub off the sprouts, and keep on a dry 
floor. If put up with care they will keep until July. One 
important step toward their certain preservation is to 
gather them carefully from the ground, as the least bruise 
pr< >duces rapid decay. 

For Seed. — Some of the finest roots of the most produc- 
tive hills can be packed in barrels and covered with sand 
in a dry, warm place, free from all exposure to frost. A 
small garden crop is best kept in barrels with dry sand or 
leaves; if the latter, a layer of leaves at the bottom, then 
a layer of potatoes, then a layer of leaves, and so on until 
the cask is filled. Use dry leaves and store in a dry place. 

Use. — This root is deservedly a favorite at the table, 
and the most wholesome grown. In nutritious properties 
it excels all other roots cultivated in this country, except 
the carrot. Weight for weight, it contains more than 
double the quantity of starch, sugar and other elements 
of nutrition that are found in the best varieties of Irish 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 407 

potato. For feeding stock three bushels are equal to one 
of Indian corn, yielding, on the same land, live or six 
times the food that is produced by this most profitable 
grain. 

A good-baked sweet potato is almost as nutritive as 
bread. They are better baked than boiled. They are also 
used for pies and puddings, and sweet potato rolls are 
excellent. In short, the modes of cooking this valuable 
vegetable are innumerable, but perhaps the very best is 
Marion's mode of roasting in the hot ashes. 

Marketing. — The same system adopted in placing the 
Irish potato on the market. In the case of the sweet 
potato it is not so necessary to protect against the sun, 
and such great care in handling is not required as in the 
case of the Irish potato. 

PUMPKIN.— f Cucurbita Pepo.) 

A trailing annual, from India and the Levant, with 
globular or cylindrical fruit. It has become so crossed 
that it is difficult to say of some varieties to which species 
the}^ should be referred. 

The best variety for family use is the Cashaw, a long, 
cylindrical, curved variety, swollen at one extremity, of 
fine, creamy yellow color, very solid and excellent to 
use as a winter squash, and quite as valuable as any for 
the other purposes. Pumpkins' are not as particular 
about soil as melons and cucumbers, but will grow well 
on any tolerably rich ground. It is not best to grow them 
in the garden, as they will mix and corrupt the seed of 
the other varieties. They like a soil freshly reclaimed 
from the woods; the field is the proper place for their 
cultivation. Plant when the main crop of corn is put in; 
let the hills be ten feet apart. Hoe frequently and keep 
clean. Let only one plant remain in each hill. Do not 
earth up the plants, but keep the soil about them light 



408 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



and loose with the hoe, until the vines prevent further 
culture. 

Use. — In France, as well as in New England, the pump- 
kin is much used for stews and soups. The best, such as 
( Jashaw, are good substitutes for the winter squash, and 
make an excellent pie. They are also a valuable food for 

cattle. They can 
be preserved by 
boiling and dry- 
ing the pulp in an 
oven, or b} T cut- 
ting in strips and 
d lying by the fire, 
or will keep very 
well whole, if in a 
cool, dry place, 
free from frost. 

RADISH. 
(Raphanus sativus.) 
This is an an- 
nual Cruciferous 
plant, grown in 
England as early 
as 1548, being one 
of the plants men- 
tioned by Gerard. 
The lower leaves 
are lyrate ; stem 
about two feet high, with pale violet flowers; the root 
fleshy, spindle or globular-shaped; of various colors. 
There are two kinds of radish, the spindle-rooted and 
the globular or turnip-rooted. These are again divided 
into early and late varieties, among which we will 
notice : 




Fig. 142— Mammoth Golden Cashaw. 




(409) 



Plate 5 -New White Chartier Radish. 



410 GARDENING FOE. THE SOUTH. 

Early or Spring Radishes. 
Early Scarlet Short-Top. — Root long and spindle- 
shaped; leaves very short. It is the earliest, most crisp 
and mild-flavored, and requires less space than the other 
varieties. Much esteemed for its bright color. The root 
grows partly above ground. Long Scarlet Early Frame 
and Salmon differ xevy slightly from this. 

White Turnip-Rooted has a white exterior and a 
round bulb, terminating in a small, librous root. Flesh 
white and mild. 

Yellow Summer. — This is a turnip-rooted variety, 
named from its color, and will stand the heat better than 
any other variety. 

Winter Radishes. 

Black Winter or Spanish. — Turnip-shaped, black, 
and very large; sown in August or September with tur- 
nips. It can be gathered and stored for winter. The flesh 
is white, hard, and hot. The White Spanish is white out- 
side, and the flesh milder than the Black. 

Chinese Rose-Colored Winter. — Conical; bright 
rose-colored; flesh solid; texture fine; rather hot. 

French Breakfast. — A rapid grower; mild, tender 
and crisp; an excellent variety for forcing. The upper 
portion is red and the lower part is white. 

Autumn Radishes. 

Rose-Colored Chinese. — The flesh is white and the 
skin red. Flavor very good. 

Chartier. — Long, scarlet and white-tipped. 

Culture. — Radishes like a rich, sandy loam, dug a full 
spade deep, but succeed in any good garden soil. Their 
culture is very simple. If manure be freshly applied, it 
should be at the bottom of the soil, or the roots will fork. 
They are often sown in beds four or five feet wide, thinly 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



411 



broadcast; but it is 
better to put them in 
drills about eight or 
ten inches apart, an 
inch deep, scattering 
the seed thinly, which 
may be in beds de- 
voted to this crop, or 
made between the 
wider rows of beets, 
parsnips, onions, car 
rots, as well as spin- 
ach, peas, beans and 
Irish potatoes. Thus 
sown, they will yield 
large crops, without 
taking up room avail- 
able for other pur- 
poses. 

From the first of 
November until March 
a succession of the 
Oval Rose, or Scarlet 
Short - Top varieties, 
can be grown under 
glass. All that is re- 
quired is a bed of good, 
rich loam, watering 
them occasionally, and 
giving air every day, 
except when the tem- 
perature is b e 1 o w 
freezing point. Let the 
sash be off in every 
mild rain, and let the 
earth come withiu 




Fig. 143— China Rose Winter Radish. 



412 • GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

seven or eight inches of the glass. On open ground crops 
can be made for fall use, if desired, by sowing in succes- 
sion, after the summer heats are over, until about the time 
of the first frosts. With the first opening of spring, com- 
mence planting in the open ground, and sow every week 
or two until the dry, hot weather comes on. In the low 
country South, they may be grown all winter, with no 
other protection than a little litter thrown over the beds 
in severe frosts. As birds art' very fond of the seed, it is 
sometimes necessary to protect the beds with nets. Rad- 
ishes are of such rapid growth, that they will generally 
take care of themselves after planting in a good soil, but 
hoeing once will hasten their growth. 

For Seed. — Some of the finest and earliest can remain 
where grown, or be removed to another bed and inserted 
up to their leaves. Water frequently until established, 
and while the flowers are opening. Let the roots be three 
feet apart, and do not permit any others to flower near 
them, if pure seeds are desired. When the pods turn dry, 
gather, dry, thresh out, and save in paper bags. The seed 
will keep three years. 

Use. — The tops used to be boiled ror greens. The seed 
leaves, when they first appear, are used as a salad, with 
cress and mustard, and the seed-pods, gathered young, 
form a good pickle, and are a substitute for capers. 

There is a species, Raphanus caudatus, or Rat-tailed 
radish, of which the pod grows a foot or more in length, 
with a peculiar pungent but delicate flavor, and it may 
be eaten like the root, or pickled. It is from Java. 

Of the ( ommon species, however, the roots are the parts 
mainly used. They are much relished, while young and 
crisp, for the breakfast table. They contain little beside 
water, woody fiber, and acrid matter, so they cannot be 
very nourishing or wholesome. When young, and of 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 4:13 

good varieties, they are much more digestible than when 
older and more fibrous. 

Marketing. — Tie in bundles after washing. The string 
is placed on the bundle about three inches from the point 
where the tops leave the root. This will make the vege- 
table lie flat in the package. The shipment is made in 
crates, or in ventilated barrels. 

RAPE, OR COLZA. — (Brassica An pus. rar. oleracea.) 

Rape, or Colza, is a biennial plant of the cabbage tribe, 
a native of England, with glaucous radical leaves and 
yellow flowers, appearing early in spring. It is often 
called kale. 

Culture. — Sow at the same time with cresses and mus- 
tard in late winter and spring. Sow in drills or beds, aid 
follow the culture directed for white mustard. Rape, 
sown like turnips the first of September, will survive the 
frosts and afford an abundance of fine greens the latter 
part of winter and early in spring, wherever the turnip 
will stand the winter. 

Seed. — A few plants sown in August and September, 
and kept over, will flower and seed the next year abun- 
dantly. 

Use. — The seed leaves are gathered young for a small 
salad with cresses and mustard. Later it is used like 
mustard for greens. This plant is much cultivated in 
Europe for the oil expressed from its seeds. 

Rape, Edible-Rooted, or French Turnip (B. Napus, 
rar. esculenta) is another variety with edible roots, some- 
times cultivated as a substitute for the turnip. The root 
is white, carrot-shaped, about the size of the middle 
finger. It is much grown in Germany and France. This 
is not the French turnip of the North, but is the Tel tow 
of the Germans. 



414 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Culture. — It is raised from seed, which may be sown in 
August or September, and requires the same treatment 
as turnip. It likes a sandy soil, and if grown in too rich 
earth, it loses its sweetness. In dry weather, the beds 
must be watered regularly until the plants get three or 
four leaves. To save seed see Turnip. 

. Use. — It is much used in continental cookery, and 
enriches all the French soups. Stewed in gravy, it forms 
an excellent dish, and, being white and carrot-shaped 
when mixed with carrots upon a dish, it is very orna- 
mental. In using, there will be no necessity of cutting 
away the outer rind, in which the flavor chiefly resides. 
Scraping will be quite sufficient. 

RHUBARB.— (Rheum.) 

The garden Rhubarb, or Pie-plant, is a perennial, of the 
same natural family as the common dock. The varieties 
now cultivated are hybrids, which have supplanted the 
original species, Rheum Rhaponticum, palmatum, and 
undulatum, excelling them in size, earliness, and delicacy 
of flavor. The best sorts are the Early, which is of but 
medium size; Myatt's Linnaeus, rather early, and yield- 
ing large crops of large leaves, and the best flavored of 
all, Myatt's Victoria, which is two weeks later; stalks 
very large and good; St. Martin's, a new Scotch variety, 
with a rich, spicy flavor. 

Rhubarb is remarkable for the quantity of phosphates 
and soda it extracts from the earth. Crude soda might be 
added to the soil. Guano and bone-dust are very benefi- 
cial. 

Rhubarb succeeds best in a rich, deep, rather light 
loam, and in a situation open to the air and light. Trench 
the ground two spades deep. It may be raised from seed, 
but thus grown, sports into new varieties. It is best pro- 
pagated by dividing the roots, reserving a bud to each 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE 415 

piece. These niay be set about two inches deep in rows 
three feet apart, and from eighteen to thirty inches 
(according to the sort) in the row. All the culture re- 
quired is to keep the surface soil light and free from 
weeds. The plantation may be made in the fall, after the 
leaves are killed by frost, and protected by litter, or as 
early in the spring as the weather and soil permit. It 
should not be disturbed after growth commences. Pluck 
no leaves the first year, after which the crop will be 
abundant. Make a new plantation about once in live 
years. If a plant or two in summer dies out, as it is apt 
to do in the South, it is best to remove, the next autumn, 
the old plant, together with soil in which it grew, and 
supply fresh soil. New plants to reset the vacancy can 
be obtained by uncovering an old crown and cutting from 
it a bud with a piece of root attached. 

To obtain the largest product, the flower steins should 
be broken off when they appear, for the plant is weak- 
ened by permitting it to seed. A yearly surface dressing 
of well-rotted manure should be given, for the stalks to 
be good must be quickly grown. 

Forcing. — This plant is forced by placing a large flower 
pot over the roots, and covering with stable manure. The 
more common way is to surround the plant with a small 
barrel without a head; a cover is placed over it at night 
and in cold days, and it is then surrounded with a pile of 
stable manure built up in as sharp a cone as it can be 
made to form. If the root is good it will soon fill the bar- 
rel with shoots. The plant should be permitted to rest 
after this crop through the season, and others be selected 
for the purpose the next year. This operation, at the 
North, is common enough, but at the South it is general^ 
death to the plant. 

Use. — The leaf-stem, or petiole of this plant, when the 
external skin is removed, is cut up in thin slices, and, 



416 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

having an agreeable acid, is used exactly like the apple 
for pies, tarts, and sauce at a time that fruits canuot be 
obtained. Gather them while young, just as they attain 
their full size, before they lose their fine flavor. They 
should be gently slipped from the root without using a 
knife. 

This plant is in almost universal use in England, 
Franco, aud the Northern States, and succeeds perfectly 
well in Middle Georgia. 

SALSIFY. — ( Tragopogpn porrifolium.) 

Salsify, or Vegetable Oyster, is a hardy, tap-rooted 
biennial, a native of various parts of Europe, with long 
tapering root of a fleshy, white substance, the herbage 
smooth and glaucous, the flower-stem three or four feet 
high, and the flower of a dull purple color. It belongs to 
the Composite family. 

Mammoth Sandwich Island is the variety generally 
cultivated in the South, it grows vigorously to double 
the size of the older form:-., and yields an excellent flavor. 
The Long While is the old standard salsify. 

Salsify likes a light, mellow soil, dug very deeply, as 
for carrots and other tap-rooted plants. Sow early in 
spring, and for a succession until the summer heats come 
on, rather thickly, in drills an inch deep and a foot apart, 
An ounce of seed will sow a square rod. Scarlet radish 
may also be sown thinly in the same drills. When an inch 
high, thin the plants', and continue by degrees until the 
plants are six inches apart. If the soil is deep and moist, 
they will grow all summer and not run up to seed. 
Watering in dry weather, especially with guano water, 
will greatly invigorate the plants. Cultivate the soil, 
and keep it free from weeds, as for beets and carrots. 
The roots may be drawn and stored in sand, but where 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



417 



the winters are 
open should remain 
in the ground all 
winter, to be pulled 
as wanted. 

For Feed. — Leave 
or transplant some 
of the best plants 
in spring, which 
will produce seed 
abundantly, (lather 
and dry in the 
heads, where they 
may be kept until 
wanted. 

Use.— The stalks 
of old plants are 
sometimes cut in 
the spring as a sub- 
stitute for aspara- 
gus. The roots are 
boiled or stewed 
like carrots, and 
have a mild, sweet 
flavor, being whole- 
s o m e, palatable, 
and tolerably nutri- 
tive. They are 
mostly cooked to 
imitate oysters, to 
which the flavor 
has some resem- 
blance. 

Marketing. 
After washing, 
six or eight roots 

27 




Fig. 144 — Sandwich Island Salsify. 



418 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

are tied together in each bundle by a cord around the 
short tops left on, and another at the lower end of roots. 
Ship in crates. 

SAVORY.— (Satureja.) 

This is a genus of Labiate plants of which there are 
two species in cultivation — the Summer Savory {Xututrja 
hortehsis), a hardy annual; and Winter Savory (Satureja 
montana), a shrubby perennial; both natives of Italy, and 
cultivated for their warm, aromatic flavors. 

Both may be propagated by seed. Sow in spring, as 
soon as the ground is a little warm, moderately thick, in 
shallow drills, and cover lightly. For Summer Savory 
the rows should be twelve inches apart, and the plants 
thinned to six inches; the thinnings may be transplanted 
to the same distance. Winter Savory requires more room; 
the plants should be a foot apart, in drills fifteen inches 
asunder. This can be propagated also, by slips, cuttings, 
or division of the roots. All the care required is to keep 
free from weeds. Seed can be gathered as it ripens from 
a root or two left uncut for the purpose. 

i .sc. — The leaves of these herbs are much employed in 
soups, salads, stuffings, etc., on account of their agreeable 
pungent flavor. They are also said to possess the de- 
sirable power of "expelling fleas from a bed." Formerly, 
they were much used in medicine. Gather when they 
come into bloom, and dry for winter use in the shade, 
pound in a mortar, pass through a sieve, and put up in 
bottles closely stopped, and they will retain their fra- 
grance any length of time. 

SEA KALE. — (Crambe maratima.) 

This is a hardy Cruciferous perennial, a native of the 
dry, shingly shores of Great Britain. The plant is smooth, 
of a beautiful glaucous hue, covered with a fine meal, and 
with large, sinuated radical leaves. The flower is of a rich 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



41 U 



white appearance, and a honeyed smell. It has proba- 
bly been cultivated in gardens one hundred and fifty 
years, but not very generally until the beginning of the 
present century, though the English peasantry from time 
immemorial have been in the habit of gathering the 
blanched shoots as they pushed through the sand, and 
boiling them as greens. 
Though a native of a cool 
climate, it succeeds per- 
fectly in Middle Georgia. 

The following represent 
the varieties proven to be 
suitable for the South: 
Early Curled Siberian or 
Dwarf German Greens, 
Dwarf Green Curled Scotch 
or Norfolk. 

Culture. — The native soil 
of sea kale is a deep sand, 
mingled with matter from 
the sea. It likes a deep 
mould, or sandy loam, and 
if poor, well-putrified dung 
and half - decayed leaves 
may be added. Upon the 
richness and proper pre- 
paration of the soil the luxuriance of the plant depends. 
The situation must be free from all shade of trees. 
Sea kale is propagated by seeds, or offsets, or cuttings 
of the root; but the best plants are raised from 
seed. Sow the seed in a well-prepared soil, rich, or made 
so with well-decomposed manure, and shaded by a fence, 
or building, from the midday sun. Draw the drills one 
foot apart, and scatter the seed thinly along the drills. 
The beds should be about four feet wide, for convenience. 




Fig. 145— Sea Kale. 



420 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Sow very early in spring. If the outer coat of the seed be 
bruised, without injuring the inside, the germination will 
be accelerated. The plants are very slow in appearing; 
never less than three weeks, often four or five months, 
and sometimes a full year. Water plentifully in dry 
weather, and keep the seed-beds free from weeds during 
the season. Thin the plants as they appear to an inch 
apart, and, as they grow strong, to two or three inches, 
and keep free from weeds. In the autumn, when their 
leaves decay, clear them away, and earth them up about 
the crowns with an inch or two of soil from the alleys, 
or leaf-mould from the woods, and cover over the whole 
bed, four inches deep with long litter, and leave it to 
stand until the time of transplanting. 

As early as possible the spring ensuing, prepare the 
permanent bed for those you wish to transplant. Those 
raised where they are to remain succeed best. 

Let the soil be light, and well enriched with good com- 
post. Leaf manure is better than hot dung. Dig it up 
deeply and thoroughly at least two feet deep, and lay it 
off in beds three feet wide, with alleys two feet in width 
between. Upon each of these beds plant two rows of 
plants eighteen inches apart, and the same distance in 
the row. Take up the plants very carefully with the 
trowel, so as not to disturb the roots. If you plant cut- 
tings of old plants put two in each place, to guard against 
failures. In all cases, be careful in transplanting that the 
roots are not broken or dried by exposure to the sun and 
air. During the dry, hot weather of summer, the beds 
should be liberally watered the first season after replant- 
ing, as upon their summer growth depends the next 
season's crop. Keep the soil clean, and after the plants 
get well rooted dig over the ground between the rows, 
making the soil as fine as possible. 

The coming autumn the earthing-up must be a little 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 421 

increased; give a coat of leaf-mould, or compost manure, 
and over this a thick coat of leaves, which will bring the 
plants on early in the spring. The next spring remove 
the litter, and dig in some of the manure into the alleys, 
and then, if you blanch with pots, spread over the beds 
about an inch deep of clean sand. The shoots may be 
blanched, and a few cut for use, but sparingly, as the 
plants must not be weakened. The better way is not to 
remove the covering of leaves until you have gathered 
what you desire. On a portion of the bed, to produce 
early, the winter covering of compost and leaves must be 
yearly applied. 

Another portion must be left uncovered until the 
shoots begin to rise, and then covered with eight or ten 
inches of sand, for a later crop. Each spring give it a 
dressing of salt, like asparagus, and dig over the surface 
of the bed, as before. Ketain for each plant only four or 
five of the best suckers, at regular distances around the 
stem; suffer none of these to seed, if you would not 
greatly injure the next year's growth. 

Sea kale, though eatable without blanching, as spring- 
greens, is vastl}' improved when blanched. This may be 
done by earthing-up the crowns eight or ten inches with 
sand, or light mould, or by retaining the coat of dry 
leaves put over the beds in autumn. 

This covering may remain until the cutting ceases in 
the spring, when all covering must be removed at even- 
ing, or in cloudy weather. The shoots will raise the 
covering when in a fit state for cutting. The courses of 
leaves should be from five to twelve inches thick, accord- 
ing to the age of the plants, and as directed above, may 
remain on all winter. But a large flower pot, with the 
hole in the bottom stopped, and light at the edges care- 
fully excluded by a coat of litter is the best of all modes 
of blanchin"'. 



422 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

For Seed. — A plant that has not been blanched or cut 
from must be allowed to run to seed in the spring. A 
single plant will produce an abundant supply. 

Use. — Sea kale comes on early in March, when vege- 
tables are scarce, and affords a very wholesome and 
agreeable table luxury. The young shoots and leaf stalks, 
before unfolding, are boiled and dressed like asparagus, 
are employed in soups, and also make an agreeable salad. 

SHALLOT, OE ESCHALLOT.— ( Allium Ascolonicum.) 

This is a plant of the onion tribe, which derives its 
botanical name from growing wild at Ascalon, in Syria. 
It has a strong taste, but as the strong flavor is not offen- 
sive, like the garlic, and docs not remain so long upon 
the palate as the onion, it is often preferred. The root is 
bulbous, similar to that of garlic iu being divided into 
cloves, included in a membrane. It rarely sends up a 
flower-stock, and hence is often called the barren onion. 

The best sorts are the Common and the Long-Keeping, 
of which last the bulbs have been kept two years. The 
" Big Shallot " of our gardens is Rocambole. 

Culture. — It is propagated from the offsets of the roots. 
Prepare the beds as for the rest of the onion tribe, but it 
will do with not quite as rich a soil. Let the soil be made 
perfectly light and friable. The last of September is the 
best time for planting the early crop, but they may be 
planted any time during the autumn and winter. The 
early planted ones come into use early in May. Make the 
beds four feet wide, and mark them off in drills an inch 
deep, ten or twelve inches distant, and put the offsets out 
six inches apart in the drills. Do not cover deeply; leave 
the point of the clove just even with the surface of the 
earth, and press the soil around. Keep the ground free 
from weeds, but be particular, in hoeing, not to earth up 
the bulbs. The leek is the onlv member of the onion 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 423 

tribe that is not injured by gathering the earth about its 
stem. Take up the bulbs when ripe, dry in the shade, 
and preserve as garlic. They may be kept until the next 
spring. 

I 'se. — The shallot, though more pungent than some 
members of the onion family, is preferred by many in 
seasoning gravies, soups, sauces, and other culinary pre- 
parations, and is by some considered almost indispen- 
sable in the preparation of a good beefsteak. It can be 
pickled in the same manner as the onion. 

SKIRRET. — ( Slum sisarum.) 

Skirret is a perennial Umbelliferous plant from China, 
known in Europe since 1548. It grows a foot high, with 
pinnate lower leaves. The root is composed of several 
fleshy tubers, the size of the little finger, joined at the 
crown. 

Culture. — Skirret likes a deep, rich, rather moist soil, 
with the manure applied at the bottom. The situation 
should be open. It is propagated by seeds, or by offsets 
of established roots. Seedlings produce the best roots. 
Sow in spring, when the ground becomes warm, in drills 
an inch deep and ten inches apart. When the plants are 
an inch or two high, thin to six or eight inches apart. 
Cultivate like salsify, and keep clear from weeds. They 
will be fit for use in August, but can remain in the ground 
to use as wanted all winter. Slips of the old roots may 
be set out nine inches apart and cultivated in the same 
manner. Leave some of the plants in the ground, and 
they will throw up seed-stalks and ripen seed during the 
summer following. 

Use. — The tubers are boiled and are very sweet, some- 
what like the parsnip, and are thought more palatable by 
some, but are disagreeable to many. They are boiled, 
and served up with butter, or cold, with vinegar and oil, 



424 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

and are also cooked, like salsify, in batter. It was 
formerly esteemed as " the sweetest, whitest, and most 
pleasant of roots." 

SORREL.— ( Rumex.) 

The sorrels are perennial plants belonging to the same 
family as dock and rhubarb. There are three species 
cultivated — viz.: Rumex acetosa, or common English 
garden sorrel, of which the Belleville variety is best; R. 
scutatus, French or Bound-Leaved Sorrel, a trailing 
plant, with more acid leaves than the last; R. montanus, 
Mountain Sorrel, like the last, a native of France. Of 
this last there are two varieties — the Common Mountain 
and the Green Mountain Sorrel. The first has pale green, 
blistered leaves, less acid than the common English, and 
does not run quickly to flower. The Green Mountain Sor- 
rel is earlier than this, and is the latest to flower, pro- 
ducing freely dark-green leaves of considerable acidity. 
The flowers of the first and last species are dioecious. 

Sorrel will grow from seed, or dividing the roots early 
in spring. Sow in drills fifteen inches apart and as they 
come up, thin them to one foot in the row; or part the 
roots in the autumn or spring, and set them out at the 
same distance. Water them occasionally until well estab- 
lished. Keep the plants free from weeds; cut down the 
stalks occasionally in the summer, and cover the crowns 
with a very little fresh earth, that they may send up large 
and tender leaves. When, in two or three years, the 
plants begin to dwindle, replant them in fresh soil. For 
seed, let some of the stalks run up, and gather when ripe. 

Use. — Sorrel is much used by the French in soups, 
sauces and salads, and is also cooked as spinach, a 
method which many think improves its flavor, especially 
if cooked with turnip tops. Some use the leaves in pies 
as a substitute for rhubarb. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 425 



SPINACH. — ( Spinacia oleracea.) 

Spinach is a hardy annual of the same family with the 
beet (Chenopodiaceae), and has been cultivated in English 
gardens since 15GS, and probably long before. Some 
refer its origin to Western Asia. The leaves are large, 
stems hollow, and the male and female flowers produced 
on different plants. Its name, Spinacea, is derived from 
the Latin, .spina, a thorn, on account of the prickly seed 
of one variety. 

There are four sorts, three of which are smooth seeded, 
and the other prickly. 

Round-Leaved has large, roundish, and fleshy leaves, 
and is the sort commonly used for spring and summer 
crops. Late in the season it soon runs to seed. 

Lettuce-Leaved. — Leaves rounder than the last; 
fleshy, or thick, and of a dark-green color; nearly or quite 
as hardy as the last. 

Prickly - Seeded, on Winter Spinach. — Leaves 
smaller and thinner than the other sorts, triangular- 
shaped, and very hardy. 

Henderson's Savoy-Leaved or Bloomsdale is a 
variety producing leaves very much folded and bloated. 
For this reason it stands shipping well. It is one of the 
earliest varieties grown. 

Long Standing is a good fall and spring variety; has 
thick leaves; prostrate. 

Culture. — For the winter crop, a light, dry, but fertile 
soil is preferable; while for spring sowings, to have them 
long in use, a rich, moist loam is desirable. The lime and 
salt mixture with superphosphate of lime will supply 
most of the inorganic elements required by spinach. Give 
them an open situation. The earth should be well pulver- 
ized before sowing, as fine tilth greatly promotes vigor- 



426 GAKDEKIKG FOK THE SOUTH. 

ous growth. Spinach is propagated from seed so easily, 
and is so valuable for winter greens, that no garden 
should be without it. 

The first crop is sown at the South the first of October, 
and in succession until winter sets in, and on the coast 
through the winter months the sowings are continued. 
At New York the first of September is the proper season. 
For this crop the prickly is the hardiest, but the Lettuce- 
Leaved is the best. Another sowing should be made as 
soon as spring opens, and they may be continued until 
the summer heats come on, when the plants will quickly 
run to seed. Use the smooth-seeded kinds for the later 
crops. 

Sow thinly in drills an inch deep, about fifteen inches 
apart, or eighteen inches for the larger varieties. Sow in 
moist weather, or if dry, water the seed in the drill before 
covering, for if moisture be wanting during the early 
stages of vegetation, not half the seed will come up. Thin 
them by degrees, separating them at first only an inch or 
two as the plants grow fit for use. Thinning should com- 
mence when they attain four leaves an inch or so in 
breadth. The plants must finally stand in the drill, for 
the prickly spinach five inches, and the round leaf eight 
inches. Keep the rows frequently hoed and free from 
weeds. Hoe in dry weather. Spinach kept clean and 
thinned properly is not so liable to die out in winter. 
During severe weather a thin covering of straw or ever- 
green brush is essential for the protection of the winter 
crop north of Washington, and is very beneficial south of 
that point. Regular gathering greatly promotes the 
health of the plants. The outer leaves only should be 
used, leaving the centre uninjured to supply successive 
crops. At the end of the winter, the soil between the 
rows of the winter-standing crop should be gently stirred, 
to assist their production in early spring. For summer 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 427 

spinach and all other plants cultivated for their leaves, 
the soil cannot be too rich. 

For Seed. — Some of the latest plants of the standing- 
crop should be allowed to run up to seed; let these plants 
be eight or ten inches apart. Spinach is dioecious, and 
the male plants may be removed when the seed begins to 
form. When ripe, pull the plants, dry thoroughly on a 
cloth, and beat out and store the seed in paper bags. 
Spinach seed will keep three years. 

Use. — Spinach and German Greens are the best plants 
to raise for a supply of early spring greens. Spinach 
eaten freely is laxative and cooling; it is not very nutri- 
tive, but very wholesome. It is so innocent that it is per- 
mitted to be eaten in diseases where most vegetables are 
proscribed. The leaves are very tender and succulent, 
and of a most beautiful green when boiled. The juice is 
often used for coloring various culinary preparations. 

SPINACH, NEW ZEALAND.— (Tetragonia e.vpansa.) 

An annual plant brought by Sir Joseph Banks from 
New Zealand in 1772, with thick, succulent, pale green, 
procumbent, deltoid leaves, and with small, green, incon- 
spicuous flowers. It grows four or five feet high, and is 
of the same natural family as the ice plant. 

Culture. — New Zealand Spinach may be sown early in 
April. The best soil is loam, deeply dug, and enriched by 
a liberal supply of manure. Make the drills three feet 
apart, and scatter the seed about six inches apart in the 
drill, and cover them an inch deep. Thin out the plants 
to twenty inches apart. Keep the ground thoroughly 
tilled and free from weeds, that the plants may make a 
luxuriant growth. In five or six weeks the young leaves 
will be ready to be picked. Preserve the leading shoot, 
and the branches will continue long in bearing, as in 
autumn they survive a pretty heavy frost. Twenty 



428 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



plants are enough for a family. Seed may be gathered as 
it ripens, dried carefully in the shade, and put up in paper 
bags. 

It is used as a substitute in summer for the common 
spinach. Swiss Chard is a better one. The seed vessels 
make a good pickle. 

SQUASH. — ( ( 'ucurbita Melopepo.) 

The squash is a tender trailing annual, and was first 
brought to England in 1597. It is a native of the Levant. 
It is a much esteemed garden vegetable, and in some of 

its varieties can be 
j& had for the table the 
jj-^y greater part of the 
year. 

Summer Squashes. 
The best are the 
Early Bush Scollop, 
which is small, and 
either white or golden 
yellow in its two subvarieties; both good; the Summer 
Crookneck, also a bush variety, bright yellow, covered 
with warts; Bergen, small, bell-shaped, striped dark 
green and white; used green, like the preceding, and 
when the shell hardens, becomes still better, being very 
dry and rich, and keeps well. 

Winter Squashes are of many varieties; as Valpa- 
raiso or Cocoanut, as it is named from its shape. It has 
a rough, grayish coat, flesh deep orange, very dry, and 
sugary. It is the best of all, but a great runner, and bears 
but moderately. Boston Marrow, Bell, Canada Crook- 
neck, Hubbard, and Perfect Gem are all good winter 
sorts. The Hubbard is a variety of great excellence, re- 
lated to the Valparaiso. The Cashaw Pumpkin is a good 
substitute for the winter squash. 




Fig. 1-16— Mammoth Summer Crookneck. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



429 



Vegetable Marrow Squashes are in England the 
favorite <sort, and used from the time the blossom drops 
until matured. The Custard Vegetable Marrow is now 




Fig. 147— New Red Hubbard Squash. 

the kind preferred there. From a single trial they do not 
appear productive. 

('nit urc. — The squash is planted at the same time as the 
cucumber and melon. Put six or eight seeds in a hill, 
and thin out to two or three 
when they get up. The bush 
squashes should be five feet 
apart, and the winter varieties 
at least ten. For cultivation, see 
Cucumber. Squashes are much 
better grown in rich soil ; do not 
plant them near the cucumber 
or melon, if you would not have 
worthless seed from all the plants in their vicinity. 
Gather summer kinds while the finger nail can easily 
penetrate the rind; they must be plucked as soon as fit 
for use, or the fruitfulness of the vines will be much 




Fig. 148 — Boston Marrow. 



430 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

impaired. To keep winter squashes they must be put 
away in a cool, dry place, free from frost. 

1'xc. — The squash is a very wholesome and tolerably 
nutritious vegetable, prepared for the table in the same 
manner as the turnip, for which it is an excellent sub- 
stitute to eat with fresh meat. To be fit for use after 
being boiled tender, the summer sorts must be squeezed 
between two plates, for when full of water, as often 
served, it is not fit to be eaten. The winter squashes 
should be boiled dry. They make a good pie, like the 
pumpkin and the sweet potato. 

Marketing. — Shipped in barrels or crates. The home 
market should be cultivated, because it is difficult to com- 
pete w r ith Northern gardeners since his squash can be 
stored through the winter for the early spring trade. 

TANYAH. — (Calocasia esculerita.) 

This is a large-leaved, tuberous rooted, perennial plant 
of the Arum family, much cultivated in the Sandwich 
Islands, and forms the principal ingredient in the favor- 
ite poi, a food much in use there, and remarkable for its 
fattening properties. 

It is cultivated somewhat near Charleston, and along 
the coast, and is perfectly hardy here, and probably near 
the coast as far north as Washington. The foliage is 
quite striking. 

Culture. — It may be planted in any rich, well-drained, 
low spot. Select the eyes or buds, and plant like the 
potato. The small roots are the ones generally reserved 
for this purpose. There are two distinct kinds, named 
from their color the pink and the blue, of which the latter 
is thought by many to be the most farinaceous, but others 
prefer the taste of the pink variety. The sets may be 
put out in March or early in April, and the most attention 
required is to keep the soil clean and mellow. The rows 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 431 

may be three or four feet apart, and the plants two feet 
in the rows. It comes to maturity the autumn after plant- 
ing, and may remain in the bed until wanted. It keeps 
better than either the sweet or Irish potato. It is pre- 
pared for the table by simply roasting, and is eaten with 
salt. By many they are much liked, as they are quite 
farinaceous. 

TARRAGON. — (Artemisia Dracuneulus.) 

This is a perennial plant, of the same genus as the 
wormwood, but its fragrant smell and warm aromatic 
taste have introduced it into the kitchen garden. 

Culture. — This plant does not require a rich soil, and as 
it is a native of a cold climate, it is best to give it a bleak 
winter exposure. Poor, dry earth is necessary to perfect 
its flavor. Tarragon is propagated by seed, slips, cut- 
tings and parting of the root. The latter is the easiest 
mode and most generally practiced. It may be planted 
in early spring, the plants being ten inches apart. Give 
a little water in dry weather until they are rooted. As 
they run up, if seed is not desired, cut dowu the seed 
stalks and they will shoot up afresh. Keep them free 
from weeds. It has been cultivated here with success. 
It must be taken up, divided, and reset every year, or it 
will die out. 

Use. — Tarragon is used in salads, to correct the cold- 
ness of other herbs. Its leaves are excellent pickled, or 
for flavoring vinegar to be used for fish sauces, or with 
horse-radish for beefsteaks. 

THYME.— (Thymus.) 

Common Thyme {Thymus vulgaris) is a low, evergreen 
undershrub, a native of Spain, Italy, and Greece, culti- 
vated in English gardens since 1548, and probably earlier. 
Its name (Thymus) comes from the Greek word for cour- 



432 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

age; as it was thought to renew the strength and spirits. 
It has a pleasant, aromatic smell, and a warm, pungent 
taste. There are two varieties — the broad and narrow 
leaved. 

Lemon Thyme is also a low, trailing evergreen shrub, 
seldom rising above four or six inches high. It has a 
strong smell of lemons, which gives it its common name, 
and is preferred for some dishes. 

Culture. — Thyme is raised by seed, cuttings, and 
dividing the roots. A light, dry soil is suitable. The root 
slips may be set out in rows six inches apart each way. 
The seeds are very small, and should be sown in moist 
weather in spring, the soil for their reception made very 
fine, and the seed raked in lightly with the back of the 
rake. Press the surface gently with a board or the back 
of a spade. Make the drills six inches apart and very 
shallow. Water lightly in hot, dry weather, both before 
and after the plants are up. Let them remain in the drills 
or transplant when two or three inches high. Thin the 
plants to six inches apart, and keep free from weeds 
while the plants are small. 

Thyme is often used as an edging. A very small plot 
is enough for any family. 

For Seed. — It bears seed abundantly, if permitted. The 
spikes should be gathered as the plant ripens, before it 
is washed out by the rain. Dry upon a cloth in the shade. 

Use. — The young leaves and tops are used in soups, 
stuffings, and sauces. They can be dried and preserved 
like other herbs; but in mild climates this is unnecessary, 
as it is evergreen. 

TOMATO. — (Lycopersicum escuhntum.) 

The Tomato is a tender annual, a native of South 
America, and some say of Mexico, and of the same 
natural family with the eggplant and Irish potato. It 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



433 



was introduced into England in 1590, and was long cul- 
tivated in the flower garden for its beautiful red and 
yellow fruit, which was not used for food, but by many 
considered poisonous. "As an esculent plant, in 1828- , 9, ,, 
says Buist, speaking- of its use in this country, " it was 




Fig. 149 — Atlantic Prize Tomato. 

almost detested; in ten years more every variety of pill 
and panacea was ' extract of tomato.' ' It is now one 
of the most popular vegetables in cultivation, and springs 
up self-sown in all our gardens. There are many varie- 
ties. The following are among the best: Atlantic Prize, 
Acme, Beauty, Buckeye State, Chemin Market, Cardinal, 
Dwarf Champion, Early Ruby, Fordhook First, Golden 

28 



434 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Queen, Henderson's Ponderosa, Ignotum, Lemon Blush, 
Livingston's Beauty, Livingston's Favorite, Matchless, 
Green Gage, Mikado, Volunteer, Moore's, New Peach, 
Paragon, Perfection. 

A few specially desirable varieties for general use may 
be mentioned as follows: Early Ruby, Livingston's 
Beauty, Lemon Blush, Atlantic Prize, Ignotum, and 
Ponderosa. 

The tomato likes a light, loamy soil, of moderate fer- 
tility, as in a soil too rich it runs to vine, and the fruit 
ripens late. For the early crop, sow at the first indica- 
tions of spring, some six weeks before corn-planting time 
(early in February here and at the North in March) in a 
hot-bed, or in boxes in the house. 

Sow in drills eight inches apart, and when the plants 
come up, thin to two or three inches, and transplant into 
the open ground when the frosts are over. While in the 
seed-bed give air at all times when there is no danger of 
frost. It is better to sow quite early and transplant when 
ready into small pots, and a couple of weeks after, when 
these are full of roots, shift them into five-inch pots, in 
which they may be kept until they blossom, if a late 
spring or apprehension of frost renders it necessary. 
Transfer them with the ball to the hill in the open ground 
in a cloudy, damp time, in fresh-dug soil. If the weather 
is dry they may be planted, the fresh soil pressed closely 
about the ball, a plentiful watering given, finishing with 
a covering of light soil to keep the ground from baking, 
and shade during the day until established. Let the rows 
be about four feet apart and the plants three feet in the 
row. In poor soil less room is required between the rows. 
As they are very tender, do not plant out until danger 
of frost is over, and protect them by large flower pots or 
boxes, if there is any fear of frost. For a succession, sow 
in the open ground about corn-planting time in a rich, 



VEGETABLES DESCKIPTION AJSD CULTUKE. 435 

sheltered spot, water with tepid water in dry weather, 
shield them with a mat or box in cold nights, and thin 
the plants while young to three inches, and carefully 
transplant these, when ready, with a trowel and ball, 
into their final situation. In the Gulf States another 
sowing or two should be made, to keep up a full succes- 
sion in the long summer. 

As soon as the lower fruit is half grown, cut off the 
upper part of the plant above the larger fruit, that its 
growth may be stopped, and the fruit below will be larger 
and several days earlier. Ninety per cent, of the fruit 
grows within eighteen inches of the ground, but a large 
portion of the vines grow above that height. Tomatoes 
like the soil about them well hoed, and free from weeds. 
Plants grown in the open air are more abundant in bear- 
ing than those forwarded under glass. In well-trenched 
ground the}' will continue bearing until frost. 

To Save Sad. — Select the largest early fruit, mash with 
the hand, and wash the seed from the pulp; spread out 
upon plates and dry in the shade; when dry, put them in 
paper bags. 

Use. — Few vegetables are prepared in as many differ- 
ent forms as the tomato. It is pickled when green, and 
preserved when ripe; it is eaten raw or cooked; it enters 
into soups and sauces, and is prepared in catsups, marma- 
lades, and omelets. The French, and the Italians, near 
Rome and Naples, raised them by the acre long before 
they were used by other nations, and, it is said, prepared 
them in an almost infinite variety of ways. There are 
very few preparations into which it enters which are not 
improved by the addition. A good supply should be pre- 
pared when in season by stewing and putting up in 
patent cans for winter use. On account of the acid of the 
fruit, earthen or glass jars are best. 



436 GARDENING FOE, THE SOUTH. 

Marketing. — Tomatoes are shipped in bushel crates, 
and the top layer is carefully faced. Careful sorting of 
the fruit into grades depending on the degree of ripeness 
is required, and the packing must be done by laying the 
tomatoes in the crate one by one to insure quality and 
neatness. Some of the most successful shippers wrap 
each tomato in soft paper before packing. 

TURNIP.— ( Brassica rapa.) 

The Turnip is a hardy biennial of the cabbage tribe, a 
native of many parts of Europe, and has been cultivated 
for centuries. It was held in considerable estimation by 
the Eomans. Cato is the first writer that mentions it. 
" Sow it," says he " after an autumnal shower in a place 
that is well manured, or in a rich soil." Columella recom- 
mends its cultivation, "because that portion of the crop 
not wished for the table will be greedily eaten by the 
farm cattle." It is cultivated in all temperate climes, and 
is now extensively grown as a field crop in England, for 
feeding stock, and is considerably raised, for the same 
purpose in our Northern States. 

Extra Early Purple Top Milan is one of the earliest 
varieties; flat root, and smooth, sweet and tender. 

Early White Dutch (Strap-Leaved). — A round, flat 
turnip, with short, narrow, strap-like leaves; is the 
earliest kind. 

White Globe is a beautifully shaped, globular root, 
of the largest size, a standard of excellence. 

Early White Flat Dutch. — An early, rapid grower 
and desirable white turnip. The roots are sweet and 
juicy. 

Yellow Aberdeen is very hardy; more so than the 
foregoing. Sweet, fine-flavored, and very nutritious. It 
is of a j^ellow color, round, handsome shape, firm and 
sweet, and keeps well. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 



437 



Golden Ball. — An excellent yellow rooted turnip; 
solid and good flavor. A fine table variety. 

Ruta Baga, or Swedes Turnip is a different variety 
(Brassica campestris, var. ruta baga), of which the foliage 
differs from those preceding in being smooth and covered 
with glaucous bloom. There are several varieties, all 
hardy and good. 

PuRPLE-ToprED Swede. — The roots are very large, of 
an oval, tapering form, and the greater their size the 
sweeter and more nourishing 
they become. It keeps until 
spring. 

Skirving's Improved Swede. 
This is of still better form than 
the foregoing, the leaves not so 
large, less smooth, and free from ^ 
bloom; flesh fine, yellow, and 
very nutritious. 

Sweet German TuRNir. — 
('ailed also White Ruta Baga 
and Cabbage Turnip (Brassica 
campestris Napa Brassica, D. C), 
resembles the last two, but the flesh is white, very sweet, 
with somewhat of the cabbage flavor, and is a good 
keeper. Roots large, but not as regular as the preceding. 

A good fertilizer, at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre, 
is furnished by the following formula: 




Fn 



150 — Sweet German 
Turnip. 



Cotton seed meal, 
Nitrate of soda, 
Acid phosphate, 
Muriate potash, 



450 pounds. 
250 pounds. 
900 pounds. 
300 pounds. 



For the spring crop manures rich in ammonia are essen- 
tial, but for the autumn crop the superphosphate of lime 
seems to act more beneficially than any other application. 



438 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Culture. — The turnip likes a rich, sandy soil. If raised 
on ground manured by cow-penning, the crop rarely fails, 
as the urine deposited in the soil affords the phosphates 
so necessary for this crop, and in such places it is far less 
infested with insects. Soil fresh from the woods also suits 
it. For the early crop seed grown north of the locality 
in which it is sown is generally preferred, but for the 
main crop, pure seed from handsomely shaped roots of 
home growth is sufficiently good. In the more Southern 
States sow early turnips late in January, or through 
February, and farther North as soon as the ground is in 
a suitable condition, and the danger of its becoming again 
frozen is over; that is, when the atmosphere begins to 
feel like spring. Sow in drills fifteen inches apart, in fine, 
light, well-manured soil, in drills one inch deep, covering 
the seeds half an inch with fine soil pressed thereon. 
Keep the soil free from weeds. As soon as the plants get 
a little strong, thin out to two inches, and finally to six 
inches in the row. If the ground is not kept light and 
well worked, and the plants properly thinned, it is a mere 
waste of time and seed. The Early White Dutch and 
Early Milan are the kinds to be preferred. They do much 
better in drills than broadcast. 

For fall turnips, sow the Early White Dutch, etc., any 
time in August and September, broadcast, or better in 
drills, as directed above. If broadcast, thin them to 
about twelve inches apart or more. If sown just before a 
rain, they will come up at once. Soot, wood ashes, and 
unslaked lime are all useful to promote growth and drive 
away insects. The last of July or the first of August is 
the time for sowing the main crop of common turnips, 
while in Georgia the last sowing for greens is made the 
first of November. 

The varieties of the Ruta Baga and the Sweet German 
are the best when planted for late winter use. These are 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 439 

sown at New York the last half of June, or early in July; 
in Georgia from the 1st to 20th of August. Sow in very 
rich, fresh-prepared soil. Let the drills be two feet apart, 
and thin the plants by degrees until twelve or fifteen 
inches in the row. As soon as the plants appear, loosen 
the earth about them. It requires a richer soil than the 
other varieties. Fill any vacancies in the row by trans- 
planting; these plants will make nearly as large roots 
as the others. Keep the soil light and mellow by the use 
of the hoe. Large crops can be tended with the plow 
and cultivator to great advantage. In good soil the yield 
is immense. The crop may be drawn as needed. Some 
should be taken before they begin to grow up to seed and 
stored in a cool place for late keeping. 

To Slice Seed. — Select a few of the best roots, shorten 
the tap-root, and plant them two feet apart. Tie the 
stalks to stakes, and keep them at a distance from all 
other members of the cabbage tribe. Seed of the turnip 
should be changed every few years, as the plant degene- 
rates. It keeps three years. 

Use. — This is one of those useful vegetables that can be 
enjoyed with everything. The tops gathered in winter 
and spring make the greens much prized by us all in 
early spring. The roots are wholesome, though they dis- 
agree with some stomachs. They are considerably nutri- 
tious also; four ounces of White Dutch containing eighty- 
five grains of nutritive matter, and four ounces of Ruta 
Baga containing one hundred and ten grains of the same. 
Any over-supply of this crop may be fed with great advan- 
take to cows and swine. 

Marketing. — When the turnip first conies into market 
it is shipped with the tops on, because these tops are 
often used for greens, but later in the season the turnips 
are shipped in barrels like potatoes, with the tops cut off. 



440 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 

WATER CRESS.— (Nasturtium officinale.) 

This is a hardy, perennial, English, Cruciferous plant, 
growing in running streams. There is but one variety 
in use. 

The Water-Cress likes a clear, cool, running stream, 
fresh issuing from a spring, the nearer its source the bet- 
ter, with the water about an inch and a half deep, with 
a sandy or gravelly bottom. It must, of course, at first 
be raised from seed, which can be sprinkled at the source 
of some gravelly stream. If once established, it will soon 
propagate from self-sown seed. If the stems get choked 
with mud and weeds they must be taken up and the 
beds cleared and replanted. The shoots ought always to 
be cut, as breaking injures the plants. 

They grow best in water not over two or three inches 
deep, and if plants can be got, should be set in rows 
parallel with the stream, eighteen inches apart. 

Use. — Water-cresses are generally liked for their warm, 
pungent taste, and are used alone or in mixed salads. 

WATERMELON.— f ( 'itrullus vulgaris.) 

This is a trailing annual, a native of the tropics, and of 
the same natural family as the cucumber and musk- 
melon, but belongs to a distinct genus. It is a large, suc- 
culent, and refreshing, but not high-flavored fruit, and is 
probably the melon mentioned in the Bible. The varie- 
ties are numerous, many of them not being known out of 
a limited locality. The following are general favorites: 

Boss. — A melon with a thin dark rind. A good shipper. 
The flesh is deep red and fine flavor. Oblong shape. This 
is an early melon and very productive. 

Arkansas Traveller. — This was introduced by Lan- 
dreth, and has been recommended by some of the experi- 
ment stations as a superior melon. " Rind dark green 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 441 

with wavy stripes of black, the edible portions extending 
within half inch of skin; flesh brilliant red, sweet and 
tender; very juicy." 

Dixie. — A cross from the Mountain Sweet on the Kolb 
Gem. Ripens earlier than Kolb Gem. 

Florida Favorite. — This is pronounced to be by 
many one of the best melons on the market. The flesh is 
red and fine flavored. 

The Jones. — This and the Kolb Gem are shaped alike. 
The flesh is red and remarkably sweet. The melon grows 




Fig. 151 — Mclver's Watermelon. 

to a large size. Some of the experiment stations place 
this variety at the head of the list. 

Kolb Gem. — This melon originated near Eufaula, 
Alabama, and is named after Captain R. F. Kolb, its 
originator, one of the prominent citizens of that State. It 
has been largely grown for shipment North because of its 
tough rind and firm, bright red flesh. 

Rattlesnake. — This fruit is an old variety-, well 
known in Georgia and other sections of the South. Ob- 
long form and when fully developed, possesses fine quali- 
ties in flavor. It is not a good shipping melon. 

McIver Sugar Melon. — A variety originating in 



442 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

South Carolina, raised by Colonel E. R. Mclver, of Dar- 




Fig. 152— Dixie Watermelon. 

lington, and mentioned by the North Carolina Experi- 
ment Station as standing next to the Jones in quality. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 443 

The following are also classed as superior melons by 
experimenters: Lone Star, Pride of Georgia, Scaly 
Bark, Sugar Loaf. 

See spraying calendar for remedies against diseases. 

Culture. — The watermelon likes a deep, rich, sandy 
soil. Where this plant is most successfully cultivated, it 
always grows upon sand. The hills should be not less 
than ten or twelve feet apart in warm climates, and seven 
or eight at the North. Do not plant until the ground is 
warm, and cultivate exactly in the same manner as the 
muskmelon and cucumber. It should not be grown 
within one hundred feet of other melons, gourds, etc., if 
you would gather pure seed. Protect from insects as 
directed in the article, Cucumber. The melon worm does 
not annoy the watermelon. 

I r se. — This is a wholesome fruit, very popular in sum- 
mer from its beauty and the refreshing coolness of its 
juice. It is not very nutritious, as it contains ninety-five 
per cent, of water. It is not by any means as nourishing 
as the muskmelon, and lacks its peculiar rich flavor. The 
outer rind is used for preserves. In many parts of Europe 
the juice is boiled into a pleasant syrup, or made into 
beer. 

Marketing. — This is done in box-cars which are well 
ventilated. The smaller melons are placed on the bottom 
and the larger at the top. The smaller will stand pres- 
sure better. Pack securely to prevent the melons from 
moving about during transit. 



HERBS FOR MEDICINAL PURPOSES. 

A few roots of the most useful of these should be found 
in every garden. The medicinal properties of many of 
them depend upon their aromatic qualities, and they are 
never so fragrant and full of virtue when grown upon 



444 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

ground highly manured. Chamomile, lavender, rose- 
mary, rue, wormwood, and many others lose much of 
their strength when forced into rank growth. Common 
garden soil, without manuring, is quite good enough. 
^Yhenever the plants begin to decline, take away the old 
surface soil, and apply fresh, or set out new plants in 
fresh ground 

Medicinal, pot, or sweet herbs, as a general rule, should 
be gathered when in bloom, and dried carefully and thor- 
oughly in the shade. When thoroughly dry, press them 
closely into paper bags, or powder them finely; sift, and 
keep in closely-stopped bottles. 

Angelica (Archaytgelica officinalis) is an Umbelliferous 
biennial plant, growing from three to five feet high, and 
a native of many parts of Northern Europe. The whole 
plant is powerfully aromatic. Its roots have a fragrant, 
agreeable odor, and at first a sweetish taste, which soon 
turns acrid in the mouth. Its medical properties are 
aromatic, stimulant, and gently tonic. 

Its stalks were formerly blanched and eaten like 
celery, but it is mostly cultivated to make a sweetmeat 
from them when young and tender. They are also can- 
died by the confectioners. 

Sow the seed one foot apart in August or September, 
and when they get about four inches high, the next 
spring, set them in rows two feet apart each way. Though 
the plant is only a biennial, yet by cutting down the seed- 
stalk whenever it rises, the same plant may be preserved 
several seasons. Angelica likes a moist, cool soil, such 
as the banks of ditches. 

Anise (Pimpinella anisum) is an Umbelliferous annual, 
a native of Egypt. It is cultivated for its seeds, and its 
leaves, which are occasionally used as a garnish, and for 
seasoning like fennel. The seeds have a fragrant, agree- 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE 



445 



able smell, and a sweetish, pleasant taste. They are use- 
ful wherever an aromatic stimulant is required. 

The plant grows 
about eighteen inches 
high. Sow the seed 
where it is to stand in 
spring, in a dry, light 
soil, and thin out the 
plants, if too thick, to 
three or four inches 
apart. 

Balm (Melissa offici- 
nalis) is a hardy, La- 
biate - flowered peren- 
nial, native of Switzer- 
land and the south of 
France, but has long- 
been cultivated in gar- 
dens. It has an aro- 
matic taste, and a 
grateful, fragrant 
smell, a little like 
lemons. 

It is a square-stem- 
med plant, rising about 
two feet high. It is 
used in making balm 
tea, a grateful drink in 
fevers, and for forming 
a pleasant beverage 
called balm wine. It is 
a great favorite with Fig> i 53 _Bene. 

the bees. 

Any garden soil will do for balm. It is readily pro- 
pagated either by slips, or by parting the roots in 




446 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



spring. Plant ten inches apart, giving water if dry 
weather. 

Bene (Sesamum orientate) is an annual plant, and a 
native of Africa and India. Introduced into this coun- 
try by the negroes. It grows from three to six feet high, 
bearing numerous pods, filled with smallish seed. These 
are used for food in many parts of the world, and are also 
cultivated for the oil with which they abound. The oil 
resembles that of olives, and is nearly as good. The leaves 
abound in mucilage; one or two stirred in a half pint of 
water will form a bland mucilaginous drink very useful 
in cholera infantum, dysentery, and summer complaints 
generally. The leaves should be freshly gathered, and 
enough may be added to make the water ropy without 
affecting its color or taste. 

Sow a row in spring, on the edge of a plot or border, 
and thin out as the plants require room. A few plants 
will furnish all the leaves desired. 

Boneset, or Thoroughwort (Eupatorium perfoliatum), 
is a Composite-flowered perennial, a native of most of the 
United States, which, if not found growing wild in the 
vicinity, should be cultivated, as it is one of the best 
herbs in family practice. It has a faint odor, an intensely 
bitter taste, and is slightly astringent. Its medicinal 
virtues are diaphoretic, tonic, and in larger doses, emetic 
and aperient. It is principally used as a diaphoretic in 
colds, catarrhs, and rheumatism, in intermittent, remit- 
tent and inflammatory diseases, or given cold as a tonic 
in dyspepsia. 

Boneset can be raised by transplanting the roots or 
sowing the seed in spring. 

Borage (Borago officinalis) is an annual European 
plant. The tender tops, young leaves, and flowers are 
sometimes used as a salad by the French, and boiled by 
the Italians. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 447 

Medicinally it was formerly thought endowed with 
very great virtues, aud numbered among the four cordial 
flowers. 

Old Gerard says: " Those of our time do use the flowers 
in salads, and to exhilarate and to make the minde glad. 
There be many things made of them used for the comfort 
of the heart, to drive away sorrow and increase the joy 
of the minde." The plant is not much used now except 
as an ingredient in the drink called " a cool tankard," 
made of wine, water, lemon-juice, and sugar, to which a. 
few of the tender leaves seem to give additional coolness. 

Sow early in spring, broadcast, and a little thinning 
and weeding is all the attention that will be needed. 

Caraway (Car urn Carvi) is a native of England and 
various other countries of Europe. It is a biennial, Um- 
belliferous plant, well known to the ancients. Pliny men- 
tions it. Caraway is cultivated for its aromatic seeds, 
which are useful in confectionery, as in cakes, comfits, 
etc., and the leaves are sometimes used in soups. The 
roots are said to excel those of the parsnip, being for- 
merly cooked and used in the same manner. Medicinally 
the seeds are used in an infusion for flatulence. Sow in 
autumn, or early spring, and thin so as to give each plant 
ten inches of room. Keep free from weeds. Plants sown 
in autumn will give seed the next season. 

Chamomile (Anthemis nobilis) is a hardy, Composite- 
flowered perennial, a native of England, cultivated for its 
flowers, which have a bitter, aromatic taste, and are in 
small doses a useful tonic, but given largely, act as an 
emetic. An infusion of them improves digestion and 
gives tone to the disordered stomach. The flowers are 
sometimes chewed as a substitute for tobacco. 

It is best propagated by dividing the roots in spring. 
Keep the ground free from weeds. Plant nine inches 
apart. As to varieties, the single-flowered has the most 



448 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 

virtue, but the double-flowered is most cultivated, from 
its greater productiveness. 

Clary (Salvia sclarea) is a Labiate-flowered biennial 
from Italy. The leaves of this plant were formerly used 
in soups, and its flowers are now made use of in a fer- 
mented wine. 

The medicinal virtues of the plant are cordial and as- 
tringent, and it is used either in its fresh or dried state. 
For propagation and culture, see Sage, which belongs 
to the same genus. Clary, however, must be yearly re- 
newed by fresh sowing. Thin the plants to fifteen inches 
apart each way. 

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is an Umbelliferous 
annual from the East, and also grows naturally in the 
south of Europe. Some like its tender leaves for soups 
and salads, but it is raised mostly for its seeds, which 
have a pleasant aromatic taste, though the smell is dis- 
agreeable. Coriander seed is carminative and stomachic. 
It is often used to disguise the taste of medicines, but it 
is principally employed in confectionery. 

Sow the seed in spring or autumn, where they are to 
remain, in drills twelve inches apart. Thin the plants to 
four inches, and keep free from weeds. 

Dill (Anethum graveolens) belongs to the same genus 
with Fennel, and is a biennial, Umbelliferous plant, a 
native of Southern Europe, cultivated for its seeds, which 
have an aromatic odor, and a warm, pungent and some- 
what bitter taste. Medicinally, they are good for flatu- 
lence and colic in infants. The leaves are sometimes used 
for culinary purposes, and the seeds are occasionally 
added to pickled cucumbers to heighten the flavor. 

Sow the seeds either early in the spring, or soon after 
they are ripe, in a light soil. Thin, if crowded, and keep 
clean. The plants should be eight inches apart. 



VEGETABLES' DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 449 

Elecampane (Inula Helenium) is a native of England 
and Japan. It is a Composite-flowered, perennial plant, 
cultivated for its thick, fleshy, carrot-like root, which is 
useful as an aromatic tonic and expectorant. Cut up fine 
and fed with their corn, the root is a great relief to the 
distemper in horses. 

It is propagated by offsets, or by parting the roots in 
autumn or spring, but may also be grown from seeds 
sown in the fall. It likes a moist soil, aud the plants 
should be fifteen inches apart. 

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is a hardy, aromatic, per- 
ennialj Umbelliferous plant from the south of Europe, 
growing wild on the banks of rivers and perhaps quite as 
properly belongs to the culinary as to the medicinal de- 
partment of the garden. It has a finely divided leaf, and 
tall, umbel-bearing stems, crowned with small yellow 
flowers. 

('nil hit. — Fennel will grow in almost any soil. It is 
propagated by offsets, parting the roots, or by seed; all 
which modes may bo successfully practiced at any time 
in autumn or spring. 

The best season, however, for sowing the seed is when 
it ripens in the fall. Tin 1 seed may be sown moderately 
thick in drills (which should be twelve inches apart) 
about half an inch deep, and the earth pressed upon them. 
When the young plants arc four or five inches high, thin 
them out to twelve inches. Those taken up may be 
planted out to enlarge the bed. Water them freely, if 
the weather is dry. Keep tin 1 plants free from weeds, 
which is all the cultivation required- If the seed is not 
desired, the stems should be cut down as often as they 
run up; for if allowed to ripen seed, the old plants will 
last but a few years. But this is of little consequence, as 
plenty of self-grown seedlings will be ready to take their 
place. Eight or ten roots are enough for any family. It 

29 



450 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

should be kept within proper limits, as it is uiueh inclined 
to spread. 

['if. — Fennel is a good deal used in continental Europe 
in soups, fish-sauces, garnishes, and salads. It is also con- 
siderably used in England, but less with us. The Italians 
blanch and eat the stalks of one variety called Finochie, 
like celery. A little fennel seed sometimes gives an agree- 
able variety in flavoring apple-sauce and pies. But it is 
most used medicinally. The seeds are carminative and 
stimulant, and in an infusion are excellent for the flatu- 
lent colic of infants. 

Horehouxd (Marrubium vulgare) is a hardy, Labiate- 
flowered, perennial plant, a native of most parts of 
Europe, growing in waste grounds, among rubbish, in 
warm, dry situations. It has a strong aromatic smell, 
and a bitter, pungent taste, which is permanent in the 
mouth; medicinally, horehound is a tonic, somewhat 
stimulant and diuretic, and, in large doses, laxative. It 
enters largely into the composition of cough syrups and 
lozenges. 

Sow the seeds in the spring in any common soil. It 
scarcely needs any attention. It may also be propagated 
by dividing the roots. Plant eighteen inches apart. 

Hyssop (Hyssopus officinal it) is a Labiate-flowered, 
hardy, evergreen undershrub, from the south of Europe, 
of which the leaves and flower-spikes are the parts used 
medicinally. It has an aromatic odor, and a warm, pun- 
gent taste. It is stimulant and expectorant. 

Hyssop is propagated by slips, or dividing the roots, or 
by sowing the seed in the spring. Transplant the young- 
plants to where they are to remain, or you may thin them 
to six inches apart, and leave them in the seed-bed until 
autumn before transplanting. It likes a dry, sandy soil, 
and about eighteen inches space should be given to each 
plant. 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 451 

Lavender (Lavandula vara) is a Labiate-flowered 
undershrub, a native of the south of Europe, and hardy 
south of New York. It is cultivated for its fray rant 
spikes of flowers, which are used for the distillation of 
lavender-water. Being dried, and put up in paper bags, 
they are also used to perfume linen. Both flowers and 
leaves are very aromatic. It has an agreeable pungent 
bitterness to the taste, and its medicinal properties are 
stimulant, cordial, and stomachic. There are three varie- 
ties — the nar rote-lea red, one sort with blue and the other 
with white flowers, and the broad-leaved lavender. 

Lavender may be propagated by seeds, slips, or cut- 
tings. Sow the. seed in drills ten inches apart, in spring, 
and transplant the next spring to a dry soil of but 
medium richness, and it will be more highly aromatic. 
Give each plant about two feet of space; for drying, 
gather the flowers before they begin to turn brown at the 
lower part of the spike. 

Liquorice (GIi/<'!/rrhi,za glabra) is a Leguminous, hardy 
perennial from Southern Europe, the saccharine juice of 
the fleshy root of which is useful in catarrhs, fevers, etc. 
Its taste is sweet and mucilaginous, and it is much used 
as a demulcent, either alone or combined with other 
substances. 

A few roots of this plant, when once started, will be of 
very little trouble in the garden. The plant is propagated 
early in spring by cuttings of the roots. Dig the soil at 
least two feet deep. Take the horizontal roots of estab- 
lished plants, five or six inches long. Every shoot planted 
should have at least two eyes; make the rows three feet 
apart, and the plant twelve to fifteen inches in the row, 
and cover the roots well with mould. Onions, lettuce, or 
radishes may be grown between the rows the first year; 
afterwards keep the soil free from weeds, dress the sur- 
face with manure every autumn, and at the end of the 



452 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

third year take up the crop as soon as the leaves are fully 
decayed, and dry the roots thoroughly. Iu shallow or 
poor ground, it will not succeed. 

Mint (Mentha). — Three species of this genus of Labiate 
plants are cultivated, all hardy perennials, natives of 
Britain. 

Spearmint (Mentha viridis) belongs rather to the culi- 
nary than the medicinal department of the garden. It is 
employed in sauces and salads, as well as dried for soups 
in winter. A few sprigs of mint, boiled a little time with 
them, and then withdrawn, are thought by some to im- 
prove the flavor of green peas. Its is also used in pre- 
paring mint-julep. Its medicinal properties are aromatic, 
stimulant, and stomachic. The leaves, boiled in milk, 
are useful in diarrhea. Its infusion is good to prevent 
nausea. There are two varieties — the broad and narrow- 
leaved — equally good. 

Peppermint (M. piperita) has a strong, agreeable odor, 
a pungent, aromatic taste, giving a sensation of coldness 
in the mouth. Its medical properties are aromatic, stimu- 
lant, and stomachic. The essential oil and essence are 
the forms in which it is employed in medicine, and they 
are also largely used in confectionery and cordials. 

Pennyroyal (M. Pulegiiim) is more acrid than the 
other mints, and its taste and smell are less agreeable. It 
possesses their warm, pungent flavor, and other general 
properties, but is not so good a stomachic. The American 
pennyroyal belongs to a different genus, Iledeoma. 

All these species require a tenacious soil, which is all 
the better if moist, or even wet. 

A border sheltered from the midday sun, but not en- 
tirely secluded from its influence, is always to be allotted 
them, as in such a situation they are most vigorous and 
constant in production. 

They are readily propagated by dividing the roots in 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 453 

the winter or spring, or by cuttings planted in moist soil 
during summer. Plant in rows nine inches apart each 
way, and cover the roots about two inches deep. In 
autumn clean off the old stems, and add two inches of 
mould to the raked surface. Through the summer remove 
grass and weeds. Make new beds every three or four 
years. 

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) is a Labiate-flowered, 
hardy, evergreen undershrub, a native of the south of 
Europe. It has a fragrant, grateful odor, and a warm, 
aromatic, bitter taste. Its medicinal virtues are tonic. 

It was formerly believed that this plant gave strength 
to the memory. The tender tops are the parts used in 
medicine. 

Rosemary may be raised from seed, or by planting slips 
or cuttings in the spring or autumn. Sow the seed in 
drills sixteen inches apart. Transplant the next spring 
or autumn. Two or three plants will be enough. 

Rue (Ruta graveolens) is a perennial evergreen under- 
shrub of the Rue family from the south of Europe. It 
flowers all summer, and is very well known from its 
peculiar strong, unpleasant smell. Its taste is bitter and 
pungent, and the leaves so acrid as to blister the skin. 
It is a very powerful medicinal agent, too much so to be 
generally used in family practice. 

Rue is propagated by seeds, cuttings, or slips. It must 
not have a very rich soil, nor be suffered to run to seed. 
Sow the seed and cultivate as hyssop. 

| Sage (Salvia officinalis) is a Labiate-flowered, hardy 
evergreen undershrub, a native of the south of Europe. 
It has been cultivated from the earliest times, was 
classed among the heroic remedies, and considered the 
best of medicines for prolonging human life. An old 
Latin adage is "Cur moriatur homo cui salvia crescit in 



454 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

liorto? " " Why should a man die while sage is growing 
in his garden? " It grows about two feet high, with 
wrinkled ashy green leaves, and terminal blue flowers 
in long spikes. It has a fragrant smell and a warm, bit- 
terish aromatic taste. 

Culture. — Sage is raised from seed, slips, or cuttings. 
It likes a dry, fertile soil. Sow the seeds on a gentle hot- 
bed, or in the open ground early in spring, in shallow 
drills, eight inches apart. Press the earth upon the seed, 
covering them not over half an inch deep. Thin the 
plants, when well up, to half a foot apart, planting those 
taken up at a similar distance. Keep the soil light and 
free from weeds. In the autumn, or the next spring, 
plant them out in rows eighteen inches each way. Layers 
and rooted offsets may be set out at once at this distance. 
Cuttings of the outward shoots of the current year's 
growth, planted out in a shady border, in moist weather, 
readily take root; set them in rows six inches apart. In 
autumn or spring, take them carefully up and set them 
out in their final stations. Trim the plants to a round, 
bushy head. Gather and dry the leaves for winter use, 
but do not trim the plants too closely, especially in 
autumn or winter. 

Use. — The leaves are used for seasoning stuffings, 
sauces, and many kinds of meat, as well as to improve 
the flavor of various other articles of cookery. Medici- 
nally, its infusion is given warm as a sudorific, or mingled 
with vinegar and alum, is an excellent gargle in sore 
throat. It is stated by Romare that it was exported 
formerly by the Dutch to China, and it was so much pre- 
ferred by the Chinese to their own tea, that they will- 
ingly exchanged two boxes of it for one of sage. 

Southernwood (Artemisia Alrotanum) is a hardy ever- 
green, with fragrant, finely-divided leaves, nearly allied 
to wormwood, both being species of the same genus, and 



VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AJSfD CULTURE. 455 

similar as to medical properties. Like wormwood, it lias 
a grateful odor, but it is uot much used in medicine from 
its nauseous taste. As au oruameutal evergreen, it is 
worth cultivating. 

For culture, see Hyssop. 

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) is a hardy, Composite- 
liowered perennial, a native of Europe, long cultivated 
in gardens. It was formerly used to give flavor to pud- 
dings and omelets. 

Its medicinal properties are tonic and stomachic. It is 
also a vermifuge. It was formerly of very general use in 
the preparation of alcoholic bitters. 

Divide the roots, and set out a few slips in autumn or 
spring. After it is well rooted, be careful you do not get 
too much of it. There are two varieties — the common 
and the curled. 

Wormwood (Artemisia Absinthium) is a native of 
Europe, and is a hardy, Composite-flowered perennial, 
cultivated much in gardens. Its odor is strong and fra- 
grant, and its taste aromatic, but intensely bitter. It is 
cultivated for the tops or extremities of the branches. Its 
properties are tonic and diuretic, and it is a vermifuge. 

Wormwood likes a calcareous soil, and may be raised 
either by cuttings, seeds, or dividing the roots. Culti- 
vated same as hyssop, the roots being eighteen inches 
apart. A dry, poor soil is necessary to bring out the 
peculiar virtues of this plant. 

Roman Wormwood (.1. Pontica) is less nauseous than 
the preceding, and generally preferred. 



456 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

FRUITS — VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 
ALMOND. — (Amygdalus communis.) 

The Almond is a native of Asia and Northern Africa. 
It is a tree of medium size, nearly allied to the peach in 
habit and general appearance. The leaves are similar to 
the peach, having glands like some varieties of the latter 
fruit, and flowers of similar shape, but much larger and 
more ornamental, varying in color from pure white to a 
fine blush. The chief difference is in the fruit, the stone 
of the almond being flatter, not so hard, and covered with 
a woolly skin that opens spontaneously when the kernel 
is ripe. 

In Southern Europe the tilniond is much cultivated, 
and large quantities of nuts exported. The kernel is the 
part used; the sweet varieties, whether green or dry, form 
a very nutritious article of food, and a most agreeable 
addition to the dessert. Almonds are used in confection- 
ery, cooking, perfumery, and medicine. The bitter 
almond is the kind used in perfumery and flavoring; it 
contains prussic acid, which, though a violent poison, is 
not thought injurious in the small quantities required 
for these purposes. 

Vilification. — A warm, dry soil is most suitable for the 
almond, which is cultivated exactly like the peach, and 
is subject to the same diseases; it may be budded on the 
almond, peach, or plum stock. The almond cannot be 
successfully cultivated in the middle or northern portions 
of the South. The varieties are: 

Common Almond. — Nuts one and one-fourth inch long, 
hard, smooth, compressed, and pointed, with a kernel of 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 457 

agreeable flavor. The hardiest and most productive 
variety, and is the common hard-shelled almond of the 
shops; flowers open before the leaves appear. 

The Princess and Sultana are varieties extensively 
cultivated in Europe aud produce nuts with thin shells. 
They are prolific and excellent varieties. Another Euro- 
pean variety is Pistache, which yields a nut of a delicate 
sweetness. 

THE APPLE.— (Pyrus Malus.) 

The Apple probably originated from the European 
Crab, but centuries of cultivation and reproduction from 
seeds of new and improved varieties have brought it to 
its present state of perfection in quality, size and beauty. 

Where the apple can be grown and preserved in perfec- 
tion, it is the most useful of fruits. Varieties can be 
selected which will afford a succession through the entire 
year. 

They can be thus preserved in our own mountain 
region, from which excellent fruit is brought as late as 
the month of May. The best varieties are excellent 
dessert fruits. For the table, they are prepared in many 
ways, as baking, stewing, in pies, tarts, puddings, dump- 
lings, jellies, and preserves. They are also dried for 
winter use. 

The best mode of propagating the apple is by budding 
or grafting on seedling stocks. For the raising of stocks, 
the seed should be sown in the fall, or early winter, in 
good soil, in rows eighteen inches apart. Transplant them 
in rows four feet apart, and one foot apart in the row. If 
any of the plants become infested with woolly aphis, 
wash them with tobacco water. The young grafted trees 
should be planted in the orchard when one or two years 
old, at distances of twenty-five to thirty feet apart. 

Analysis shows that one-half the ash of the bark of the 
apple, and over one-sixth of that of the sap-wood, is lime. 



458 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

When this mineral is not abundant in the soil, the tree 
cannot be kept healthy. Swamp muck or leaf mould, 
composted with lime and bone-dust, or ashes, are the best 
manures for the apple tree. The best soil for the apple, 
in this climate, is a deep, cool, moist loam; a northern, or 
northwest aspect, is preferable to any other. One of the 
greatest difficulties to be encountered in the cultivation 
of the apple is the sun-burning of the trunk, which can 
be prevented by training the trees with low heads, so as 
to shade their trunks from the rays of the sun. 




Fig. 154. 

By shortening in the branches of the young trees, when 
transplanted into garden or orchard, they can be made to 
put out branches about two feet from the ground, which 
is about the proper height to form a 'good top. The apple 
tree needs but little pruning; removing the water-sprouts 
and such limbs as cross each other is about all that is 
required. 

The following varieties are of general interest and are 
adapted to most sections of the South : 

Arkansas (Black Twig). — Good average size, round 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



459 



oval, with a glossy surface and yellowish red; lighter 
colored dots; flesh yellow and fine grained; flavor mild, 
with a subacid juicy taste ; ripens late. Originated in 
Arkansas. Useful for marketing and kitchen purposes. 

Baldwin. — Average size, oval conical, yellowish red 
in color; mild flavor, with rich subacid taste; good winter 
apple, and very productive. 




Fig. 155. 

Ben Davis. — Large, round and yellow striped; flavor 
mild; flesh light colored; late in ripening; good for 
market purposes. 

Bough. — Large size; oblate in form; skin bright yel- 
low; thickly dotted with russet specks; stalk rather long, 
iu a deep, narrow cavity; calyx deeply sunk; flesh white, 
juicy, and very sweet; tree a poor grower. 

Byers, Buckingham, Batchelor. — This very popular 
apple is known by fifteen or twenty names, but generally 
called Buckingham. Fruit large to very large; a little 
oblate in form, narrowing toward the eye; skin rich yel- 



460 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




Fig. 157. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



401 



low, nearly covered with bright red; dark crimson on the 
side exposed to the sun, sprinkled with white specks; 
calyx small, open, in a rather deep basin; stalk very 
short and fleshy, inserted in a moderate si«ed cavity, 
which is russeted; flesh white, tender, fine grained, juicy 




Fig. 158. 

and rich, of a subacid flavor, Ripens in October. A 
splendid fruit. 

Buff. — Fruit of the largest size, roundish and some- 
what ribbed and angular; skin thick; ground color yel- 
low, but striped and shaded with dull red, marked with 
a few greenish spots; stem three-fourths of an inch long, 
in a medium cavity; calyx in a large, irregular basin; 
flesh yellowish, and, when well ripened, tender and good, 
sometimes indifferent. Ripens October to March. 

Camak's Sweet. — Fruit medium to large; nearly 
round; dull, whitish-green, mottled with green russet, the 
patches of which are made up with small dots, with a 



462 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




Fig. 159. 




Fig. 160. 



FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 463 

dull blush cheek toward the sun; stem short and slender; 
cavity and basin broad; calyx closed; flesh firm and ten- 
der; scarcely sweet, juicy and fine flavored; best. Keeps 
until February. 

Carolina Aromatic. — Fruit large size; oblate in form, 
tapering to the eye; stalk short and fleshy, in a deep, wide 
cavity; calyx in a wide, shallow basin; color green, 




Fig. 161. 

striped with dull crimson, and covered with white bloom; 
juicy and of a fine aromatic flavor. Tree a vigorous 
grower and very productive. Ripens July 15th to August 
1st. 

Carnation. — Medium size; a delicious subacid apple; 
dark red, splashed with russet; flesh white, brittle and 
very juicy; both stalk and calyx are sunk in deep depres- 
sions; no autumn apple is superior; ripens August 10th. 

Ctjllasaga. — Large, regular, and a little conical; skin 
yellow, and nearly covered with crimson; calyx small, in 
a moderate basin; stem short and fleshy; flesh yellow, 



4G4 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




Fig. 162. 




Fig. 163. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



465 



tender and juicy, of a fine aromatic flavor. Ripens in 
October; A first-rate variety; a seedling from the Horse 
Apple, by Miss Ann Bryson, of North Carolina. 

Disharoox. — Fruit large, nearly round; skin thin, pale 
green ; stem about three-fourths of an inch long, slender, 
inserted in a moderate sized cavity; calyx open, of com- 
mon size, in a small basin; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, 
and of an excellent mild, acid, aromatic flavor. Ripens 
in September. A native of Habersham county, Georgia. 




Fig. 164. 

Early Harvest. — Fruit medium to large size, round, 
sometimes flattened; skin smooth, with a few white dots, 
and of a pale yellow color; stalk half to three-fourths of 
an inch long, slender, in a moderate cavity; calyx in a 
shallow basin; flesh white, tender, juicy, crisp; flavor 
rich, sprightly, and subacid. One of the best northern 
varieties; ripens from the 15th to the 20th of June. 

Fall Pippin. — Fruit very large, roundish, flattened, 
obscurely ribbed; stalk three-fourths of an inch long, in 
a deep, narrow cavity; calyx small, in a deep, narrow 
basin; flesh tender .and mellow, with a rich, aromatic, 
subacid flavor. A splendid apple here. Ripens in August. 
30 



40 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




Fig. 165. 




Fig. 106. 



EKUlTSs VARIETIES AAD CULTURE. 



40' 



Hockett's Sweet. — This apple originated in North 
Carolina; medium size; round oval; yellow reddish 
striped; sweet flavor, and rich in taste; flesh yellow, but 
coarse grained. Ripens in winter. 

Hall. — Originated in North Carolina; small apple, 
oblate conical; red in color with russet dots; mild flavor 
with yellowish flesh, and aromatic flavor; suitable for 
dessert. Ripens in winter. 




Fig. 167. 

Horse. — Size medium to large; conical in form; skin 
thick, golden yellow, when thoroughly ripe, with a blush 
cheek on the sunny side, a little russeted about the stem; 
stem short, and rather large, in a shallow cavity; calyx 
in a narrow basin; core large and hollow; seeds few; 
flesh yellow, firm, coarse grained, with a rich acid flavor. 
Best known variety for drying. Ripens August first. 
Tree vigorous and very productive. 

Julian. — Fruit medium size, roundish, tapering some- 
what to the eye; calyx small, in a narrow basin; stem 
short, in a moderate cavity; skin thin, yellowish-white, 



468 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




Fig. 168. 




Fig. 169. 



FRUITS VARIETIES ASD CULTURE. 469 

beautifully striped and marbled with carmine; the fruit 
is of a delicate, waxen appearance; flesh white, tender, 
juicy, and fine flavored. The best summer apple known; 
tree a fine grower and very productive. Ripens the mid- 
dle of July; rarely affected by worms. 

Jonathan. — Medium size; round conical; yellowish- 
red striped; flesh white, mild in flavor and juicy; suitable 
for dessert and market; keeps well; winter apple. Origi- 
nated in North Carolina. 




Fig. 170. 

Limbertwig. — Fruit large, dull red; flesh yellowish 
firm; not very high flavored; round oblate conical; winter; 
suitable for market. The pendant branches give the tree 
its name. It originated in Virginia. 

Maiden's Blush. — Fruit medium size; flat, smooth, 
and fair; skin thin, clear lemon yellow, with a fine blush 
to the sun; stalk short, in a wide, deep cavity; calyx 
closed, in a moderate basin; flesh white, tender, sprightly, 
subacid. Excellent for drying and culinary uses, and a 
fair dessert fruit. Ripens the first of July. 



470 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




Fig. 171. 




Fig. 172. 



FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTUItE. 



471 



Mangum. — Size small to niediuin; regular, slightly 
conical; stalk small, in a narrow cavity; color green; 
nearly covered with dark red stripes; flesh yellow and 
firm; of excellent quality and keeps until March. 

Mountain Bell. — Size medium to large; oblate and 
conical; color an orange ground, shaded and striped with 
red; stem short, in a wide, deep cavity; calyx in a mode- 
rate size, smooth basin; flesh white, hard and juicy, a 
little rough in texture, and of a fair, subacid flavor. 




Fig. 173. 

Ripens November to Mav. Second quality, but a famous 
keeper. A native of Habersham county, Georgia; found 
in an old Indian field by J. Van Buren. 

Meigs (Buncombe, lied Winter Pearmain, Red Fall 
Fippin). — Fruit large, regular, oblong, narrowing to the 
eye, sometimes slightly ribbed; skin yellow, but mostly 
covered with a marbling red, and sprinkled with promi- 
nent yellow dots; calyx small, closed, and set in a narrow 
basin; stalk very short, thick, in a deep, narrow cavity; 
flesh yellowish white, tender, juicy, with a rich, slightly 
subacid flavor. A fine native variety. Tree thrifty, and 



472 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




Fig. 174. 




Fig. 175. 



FEUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 473 

less infested with woolly aphis than many others. Ripens 
in September. 

Margaret (Early Red, Striped June). — Small apple, 
round ovate; yellowish red, with russet; basin shallow, 
with long stalk; mild flavor, quality fair; suitable for 
dessert; ripens in summer. 

Nickajack. — Fruit large to very large, of an oblate 
form; color a yellow ground, striped with dark red, 
sprinkled with russet specks; calyx large and open, set in 




Fig. 176. 

a broad, shallow basin; stem short, in a regular cavity; 
flesh juicy, tender and rich, mild acid. Ripens late and 
keeps well until April. Originated by John Summerour, 
of Burke county, North Carolina. 

Oconee Greening. — Medium size, and resembles the 
Disharoon a good deal in external appearance, but keeps 
well much longer, and is of a more acid flavor. Originated 
in Georgia. Good dessert apple. Ripens in Autumn. 

Red June. — Fruit medium size, generally oblong in 
form; skin smooth, green in the shade, changing rapidly, 



474 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




Fig. 177. 




Fig. 178. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



475 



at maturity, to a flue dark crimson; stem half to three- 
fourths of an inch long, inserted in a moderate cavity; 
calyx in a shallow basin; flesh white, tender, mellow, 
and digestible, fine grained, slightly acid, moderately 
juicy, but not rich. A fine fruit, and very productive; 
tree very liable to be attacked by the borer. 

Red Astrachan. — Originated in Russia; large fruit, 
round, conical; bright red with a bloom; acid flavor; flesh 




Fig. 179. 

white; excellent market apple and good for cooking pur- 
poses. Tree is vigorous and productive. Ripens in early 
summer. 

Romanite. — Small fruit; round conical; yellowish red 
in color; mild flavor and quality very good; suitable for" 
the mountain regions. A good dessert apple. Ripens in 
late winter. 

Rome Beauty. — Large apple, round conical ; yellow 
with red stripes; flavor mild; juicy and fine grained. 
Ripens in autumn or late summer. The large and fine 



476 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




Fig. 180. 




Fig. 181. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 477 

appearance of this apple makes it an excellent market 
variety. 

Shockley (Waddel's Hall). — Fruit medium, round- 
ish, oblong, narrowing to the eye; skin yellow, clouded, 
and striped with red, and with blotches of very dark 
greenish russet; stalk long, slender, inserted in a deep, 
narrow cavity; calyx closed, set in a shallow basin; flesh 
firm; saccharine; of good second-rate flavor; ripe in Octo- 
ber, and will keep till March. 




Fig. 182. 



Summer Queen. — Large fruit, round conical; yellow, 
with red stripes; long stalk in small cavity; flesh yellow 
with an acid flavor. Ripens in summer. A good market 
apple. 

Stephenson. — This apple originated in Alabama. 
Medium size, round oblong; yellow with red stripes; 
quality fair, with a mild taste; a good dessert and market 
apple, with excellent keeping qualities. The tree is 
vigorous and prolific. Ripens in late winter. 

Sops of Wine (Homony, Summer Queen of Kentucky). 
An average size, round; dark yellowish red ; long stalk; 



478 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



flesh white, mild in taste and good flavor. Ripens in 
summer. An excellent apple for market. Tree good 
bearer; prolific. 

Smokehouse. — Originated in Pennsylvania, but a very 
popular apple in Virginia; rather large, round oblate; 
yellow with irregular red stripes; flesh yellowish white 
with a fine flavor. An excellent cooking and market 
apple. Ripens in late summer to autumn. 




Fig. 183. 

Taunton. — Originated in Alabama or Georgia; large 
apple, oblate conical; yellow with red stripes; acid flavor, 
and good quality; fine for market, and an open grower. 
Ripens in winter. 

Watson (Carolina). — Very large, oblate conical; green 
with red stripes; flavor and quality good. Ripens in sum- 
mer. A prolific and profitable market fruit. 

White Juneating. — Quite a small apple, round 
oblate; yellowish red; good flavor; long, slender stalk in 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



479 



a shallow cavity; suitable for cooking purposes. Ripens 
in summer. Productive. 

Winesap. — Medium size, round oblong; bright yellow- 
ish red; stalk slender and average length; flesh yellow, 
with an acid flavor. Ripens in late winter. Good market 
and dessert apple. 

Yellow June. — Fruit medium size; form rather flat; 
stem short, in a deep cavity; calyx large and open, in a 
moderate basin; skin thin, and of greenish-yellow color; 
flesh yellowish, tender and juicy. An excellent variety, 





Fig. 184— York Imperial. Div. Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agri. 



and worthy a place in even' garden. 
L5th to the 20th of June. 



Ripens from the 



Yopp. — Originated in Georgia. Large fruit; greenish 
yellow, with red; very good flavor and quality; prolific; 
bears young. Ripens in summer. 

York Imperial (Johnson's Fine Winter). — Large, 
oblate and oblique; yellow with red stripes; flavor good; 
flesh yellow, juicy. A fine shipping variety, which origi- 
nated iu Pennsylvania. Ripens in autumn. 

Yellow Newtown Pippin (Albemarle Pippin). — Size 
medium to large, round oblate; yellow with a lively red 
cast; smooth with russet marks at the stem; flavor very 



480 



GAEDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 



rich; flesh firm, crisp and juicy; highly fragrant. Ripens 
very late or in winter, and is an excellent dessert and 
market apple. It is grown to perfection in Albemarle 
county, Virginia. 

The varieties of apples best adapted to the different 
sections of the South may be classified as follows: 

Virginia. 

Summer Varieties: Bough, Carolina, Early Harvest, 
Jefferis, Maiden's Blush, Margaret (Striped June), Red 




Fig. 185. 

June, Red Astrachan, Smokehouse, Sops of Wine, Sum- 
mer Queen, White Juneating. 

Autumn. — Baldwin, Buckingham, Cullasaga, Fall 
Pippin, Rome Beauty, York Imperial. 

Winter. — Ben Davis, Jonathan, Limbertwig, Nicka- 
jack, Romanite, Shockley, Winesap, Yellow Newtown 
Pippin (Albemarle). 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 481 

North and South Carolina and Georgia. 

Summer. — Early Harvest, Family, Horse, Julian, 
Maiden's Blush, Margaret (Striped June), Red Astrachan, 
Red June, Sops of Wine, Summer Queen, Yellow June. 

Autumn. — Buckingham, Carter's Blue, Disharoon, 
Meigs (Buncombe), Oconee, Rome Beauty, Taunton. 

Winter. — Ben Davis, Camak, Hockett, Mangum, Nick- 
ajack, Paragon, Romanite, Shockley, Stephenson, Yates. 

Alabama, Mississippi, North Louisiana, West Tennessee, South 
Arkansas, and East Texas. 

Summer. — Bough, Carolina Watson, Early Harvest 
(Northeast Alabama), Family, Horse, Julian, Margaret 
(Northeast Alabama), Rome Beauty (Northeast Ala- 
bama), Red Astrachan, Sops of Wine (Northeast Ala- 
bama), Summer Queen (Northeast Alabama), White 
Juneating, Yellow June. 

Autumn. — Arkansas, Buckingham, Carter's Blue, Dis- 
haroon, Oconee, Taunton. 

Winter. — Camack, Hockett, Horn, Romanite, Shock- 
ley, Stephenson, Winesap, Yates, 

East Tennessee and Kentucky. 

Summer. — Early Harvest, Horse, Maiden's Blush, 
Margaret, Red Astrachan, Red June, Summer Queen, 
White Juneating. 

Autumn. — Buckingham, Fall Pippin, Rome Beauty, 
York Imperial. 

Winter. — Ben Davis, Paragon, Winesap. 

Texas. 
Summer. — Bough, Red Astrachan, Red June, Horse. 
Autumn. — Black Twig, Fall Pippin, Rome Beauty, 
Buckingham. 

Winter. — Ben Davis, Jonathan, Nickajack, Meigs, 
Paragon, Shockley, Winesap. 
31 



482 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Florida and South Louisiana. 
Summer. — Red Astrachan, Jennings. 

Gathering the Fruit. — Apples intended for keeping, or 
sending to market, should be carefully picked from the 
tree, and handled with care, to prevent bruising. Those 
that fall of themselves must be kept separate, as the least 
bruise will cause decay. They must be frequently looked 
over, and ever}- one the least decayed must be removed, 
or it will infect the others. They should be kept at a 
uniform temperature, in a dry, cool situation. Choice 
specimens may be wrapped in absorbent paper, and laid 
singly on shelves. They should not be exposed to much 
frost, and still less to extremes of heat. Specimens mi\y 
thus be kept in good condition until March. A fruit room 
should be kept as cool as possible, and if the temperature 
could be uniformly at 32°, no decay would take place. 

In selecting varieties for cultivation, preference should, 
as far as practicable, be given to those of southern origin. 
Of northern varieties, those classed as summer apples 
succeed very well here. Some of the early autumn varie- 
ties also do well, and, of course, are summer apples with 
us. But the winter apples, as a class, are entirely un- 
suited to the Southern States. The last few years have 
developed, with us, a very large number of as choice and 
beautiful varieties of winter apples as can be found any- 
where, so that we can have an abundant supply during 
the entire year. 

Marketing. — It does not pay to ship inferior fruit of 
any character, and this is especially true with apples, 
where there is such great competition. Store the apples 
for a short while in order to give them an opportunity 
to shrink and sweat. By this method the inferior grades 
will become more evident. Use barrels of the best make; 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 483 

it is poor economy to ship in poor barrels. Pack carefully, 
shaking now and then to insure the thorough settling of 
the fruit, thus making a compact safe package. " Every 
barrel should be faced, but the facing should be properly 
done, in order to make the barrel look attractive, but not 
to deceive. The object of this facing is to have two flat 
layers at the top, stems upward. Select nice, bright, 
smooth fruit for the purpose, but the size of the apples 
used for facing should be an accurate indication of the 
average size of the entire contents of the barrel. The 
facing is done first in packing the barrel, the first two 
layers being put in the bottom, stems down, this becom- 
ing the top when open. The head is best put in with a 
screw press. When practicable, apples should be packed 
by an experienced workman. The stencil marking should 
be placed on the top, the stenciling carefully done, and 
the variety plainly indicated. The neat appearance of 
the barrel .often makes quite a difference in the price 
obtained. Stenciling should always be done on the faced 
end, as it marks the top, which commission merchants 
always open/' (Farmers 1 Bulletin G2.) 

APRICOT. — ( P run us Armeniaca.) 
The Apricot is a fruit somewhat resembling both the 
plum and the peach. The tree is ornamental as well as 
useful; larger than the plum, with glossy, heart-shaped, 
large leaves and white blossoms, which appear so early 
that they are usually killed by spring frosts. But, as with 
the nectarine, the great obstacle to its culture is tin 1 cur- 
culio, which may be treated as in the case of that fruit. 
In favorable seasons the apricot is very productive. The 
apricot is a native of Armenia and other parts of Central 
Asia. In quality, it is second only to the peach, but, 
coming earlier, it is very acceptable. 

For jellies, tarts, and preserving in brandy or sugar, it 
is much esteemed, and is excellent when dried as directed 



484 GAEDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

for the peach. The apricot is generally budded on the 
plum stock; it is sometimes propagated on its own root, 
and also upon the peach. The plum is the hardier stock, 
and makes the better tree. It uiny be root-grafted on the 
Chickasaw plum. Those propagated by seed are usually 
very hardy and productive. On the peach stock, the tree 
is. liable to be destroyed by the borer, and the fruit is 
inferior. 

Apricots are apt to bloom so early in the spring that it 
is best to plant them in a northern exposure, where they 
will be retarded in blooming; by the side of a building 
there is less danger of frost. It is just as necessary to 
shorten in the young branches of the apricot as those of 
the peach. 

The best soil is a deep loam; cultivate and manure the 
same as the peach. The hardiest apricots are the Dubois, 
Early Golden, Orange, and Breda. 

Dubois ok Early Golden. — Fruit small, roundish 
oval; pale orange color, moderately juicy, sweet and 
good; very productive and hardy. Ripens June 10th. 

Large Early. — Fruit medium size, oblong and com- 
pressed; suture deep; skin slightly downy, pale orange 
in the shade, ruddy in the sun; flesh yellow, and separates 
from the stone, rich and juicy; kernel bitter. Ripens 
June 10th. 

Orange.— Fruit medium, roundish, with suture hol- 
lowed at the stalk; skin orange, with a ruddy tinge; flesh 
dark orange, rather dry, and somewhat adhesive to the 
stone, which is small and roundish; kernel sweet; not first 
rate, but good for pies and tarts, preserving or drying; 
a good bearer. Ripens June 10th. 

Peach. — Fruit very large, roundish; sides compressed, 
and with a distinct suture; skin yellow, but deep orange, 
mottled with brown, in the sun; flesh deep yellow, rich 
and delicious; the best variety in cultivation; stone 
rough. Ripens last of June. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 485 

Breda. — Small, roundish; color deep yellow, darker in 
the sun; flesh deep orange; high flavored, rich and juicy, 
separating from the stone; kernel sweet; a native of 
Africa; hardy, productive and fine for the dessert or pre- 
serves. Ripens middle of June. 

Moorpark. — Large, roundish oval ; skin orange, with 
a ruddy cheek; flesh bright orange, free from the stone, 
juicy, and of rich, luscious flavor; stone perforated; 
hardly differs from the poach apricot, not quite so large, 
and a little later. Ripens July 20th. Very productive. 

Hemskirke. — Fruit large, roundish, but considerably 
compressed on its side; skin orange, with a red cheek; 
flesh bright orange, tender, rather more juicy than the 
Moorpark, with a rich, luscious flavor; stone small and 
kernel bitter. Ripens July 1st. 

Royal. — Fruit round, large, slightly compressed; skin 
dull yellow, with a darker cheek, faintly tinged with red; 
with a slightly marked suture; flesh pale orange, firm and 
juicy, with a rich, vinous flavor. Ripens July 1st. 

Musch. — Fruit average size, round; skin yellow- 
orange. Ripens in middle summer. Grows successfully 
in Alabama and Georgia. 

Santa Fe. — This fruit originated in Florida, and is one 
of the best apricots for the extreme South. Flowers begin 
showing late enough to avoid danger from frosts, and 
matures fruit the last of May or first of June. Fruit 
medium size, yellow with red-brown dots; flesh light yel- 
low; quality best; freestone. 

Hubbard. — Named in honor of ex-Governor Hubbard, 
of Texas, who imported it from Japan. Succeeds well in 
Texas and Louisiana. Fruit rather large; yellow in color 
and good flavor. 

Bungo. — A Japanese apricot; fruit bright yellow and 
good quality. 







>> 

& 



63 

W 



FE.UITS VAlilETlES AJMD CUI/TUBE. 487 

BANANA. — ( Musa sapientium.) 

Several varieties of tins fruit have been in cultivation 
throughout Florida and along the coast of South Caro- 
lina, Georgia, Alabama and Louisiana for many years. 
But, like all other sub-tropical fruits, it attains its best 
condition in growth aud perfection of fruit far south in 
Florida, some bunches containing as many as U00 
bananas. 

The varieties in general cultivation in Florida are: 

Baracoa. — The red Jamaica variety, with large fruit, 
good quality and red in color. This is the ordinary com- 
mercial variety. 

Cavendish. — Also known as "■Dwarf," "Chinese," 
" Martinique " (M. Cavendishii), medium size, yellow and 
excellent quality of fruit; a dwarf species. 

Golden. — Fruit large, yellow and of good quality. 

These three are the best market varieties. 

Hart's Choice (J/, orientum). — Ranges farther north 
than the Baracoa, Cavendish or Golden. Small growth; 
sometimes called fig banana; quality excellent; yellow in 
color. Ripens sooner than other varieties. 

Orinoco or " Horse " Banana (M. paradissica).— 
Hardy, and grows farther north than any other variety; 
quality of fruit fair; large and yellow in color. 

The banana is propagated by suckers or offsets. When 
the fruit ripens the plant dies down to the ground, and 
several shoots afterwards put forth from the roots. All 
of these should be cut out and transplanted except two 
or three of different ages, which, when they grow to 
maturity, will ripen their fruits in successive years. In 
transplanting the offsets" or s -inkers the land must be 
well prepared and holes about two feet deep dug and 
an ample supply of fertilizer containing potash and 



488 



GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 



vegetable mould added. Ashes and stable manure are 
excellent. The rows are run nine feet apart, and the 
plants are placed in these rows eight to nine feet apart, 
each plant opposite the vacant space in the next row. 
Marketing. — The banana is sold to the fruit-dealer on 
the bunch. The shipment is made either in barrels or 
barrel-crates, with the fruit packed in straw, or placed 
snugly in fruit-cars, when shipped in large quantities to 
one dealer, with each bunch wrapped with straw or paper 
to protect from bruising'. 

THE BLACKBERRY.— (Ituhus villosus, etc.) 

The Blackberry is a tolerable dessert fruit, being used 
for tarts, pies, puddings, jams, and preserves. It con- 





Fig. 186— Early Harvest Black- 
berry. One-half size. 



Fig. 187— Wilson's 

Early Blackberry. 

Average size. 



tinues a long time in bearing, and the fruit may be dried 
for winter use. A very good wine is made from the juice, 
which more nearly resembles Madeira than any made 
from our native grapes. There is a white variety, which 
differs from the black only in color, and is occasionally 
found growing wild amongst the black. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



489 



Although the blackberry grows in profusion in almost 
every old field throughout the South, still it is greatly 
improved in size and quality by careful cultivation and 
selection. The following varieties are recommended: 

Early Harvest. — This is very productive and very 
sweet; valuable for an early crop. 




Fig. 188— Kittatinny Blackberry (after Bailey). 
Experiment Station Bulletin 99. 



Cornell 



Kittatinny. — A large fine flavored fruit (Berckman's), 
ripening in June. The plant is erect. 

Wilson's Early. — Plant trailing; fruit very large and 
sweet, prolific and begins ripening in May. 



490 GAKDENIKG FOlt THE SOUTH. 

Dallas. — Originated in Texas and is popular in that 
State. 

The Dewberry (comprising both Rubus Canadensis 
and trivialis) is also very common at the South; is run- 
ning or trailing, aud ripens its fruit some two weeks in 
advance of the high bush varieties, and the fruit is 
sweeter. 

There are several cultivated varieties, the best of 
which are Dowmxg's, Stubbs', Austin, aud LucRetia. 
The last-named has a large, very sweet fruit of excellent 
quality. If the plants are attacked by fungi and insects 
use the spraying formulae given elsewhere in this book. 

Marketing. — Care must be exercised in packing, be- 
cause of the tender fruit. Pick before quite ripe and 
pack in 24 or 32-quart crates. 

CHEERY.— (Gerasus.) 

The Cherry, it is said, was brought from Asia by Lucul- 
lus, the Roman general; and from Rome its culture 
spread over Europe. In cooler latitudes some of the 
varieties are quite ornamental on account of their fine 
foliage and early white blossoms, but it stops growing 
and drops its leaves too early in our climate to be es- 
teemed for this purpose. 

In the Southern States but few varieties succeed well, 
except the common Morello or Pie-Cherry. The trees of 
the finer varieties grow very well for some three or four 
years, and then commence splitting and dying on the 
southwest side of the trunk. We have seen a few that 
grew and bore fine crops for a few years when planted on 
the top of poor, rocky hills. The splitting of the bark 
appears to be caused by a too luxuriant growth. The 
trees should be planted in poor ground, and have but 
little or no manuring. Train the trees with low heads, 
so as to shade the trunks and protect them from the 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



491 



sun. Cherries are generally grafted or budded on the 
Mazzard or wild European stock, though the Mahaleb 
or Perfumed-cherry stock is preferable, as it dwarfs the 
tree, and is less liable to split and sun-burn. 

It is not probable that the finer varieties of the Cherry 
will ever be very successfully cultivated at the South 
until we raise seedlings suited to the climate. 

Of the varieties described below, the Elton, May Duke, 





Downer. 



Elton. Rockport. 

Fig. 1S9. 



Magnifique. 



Sweet Montmorency, and common Morello are the only 
ones that have ever produced good crops with us. 

Cherries are divided into two groups or species — 
Cerasus avium and C. vulgaris. The first are called 
" TTeart and Bigarreau," and the second species are 
known as " Duke and Morello " cherries. 

Heart and Bigarreau Cherries. — Fruit sweet, ten- 
der and heart-shaped. The plant grows to the height of 
a medium-sized tree, with spreading branches and droop- 
ing leaves. The varieties best known are: 

Black Heart. — Large, heart-shaped; skin glossy, dark 
purple, changing to black when ripe; stalk one inch and 



492 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



a half long, in a moderate cavity; flesh half tender, juicy, 
and of a rich, sweet flavor. A large, hardy tree, but dis- 
posed to split. 

Downer. — Fruit medium, borne in clusters, roundish 
heart-shaped, inclining to oval; skin smooth, of a soft, 
lively red color, mottled with amber in the shade; flesh 
tender, melting, with a sweet, luscious flavor. 



;■ 
j... 




/ 


jf« 


-£& 






'" 








■/'iw 


■:_\,. '- ■■ 








ill 


W\ ; Jji 


\ iSl 


'jk jt -.-, : ...' ■ 




'■■ M 


BffSSSMEBB 


1^9 


~1 






^Hf • 


i • 


8 BBP^ J 










"•'.'- . ... 1 







Fig. 190— Cherry. 



Napoleon (after Bailey). 
Station Bulletin 98. 



Cornell Experiment 



Rockport. — Very large, heart-shaped; skin deep red 
on amber ground; flesh pale yellow, fine, juicy, with a 
sweet, rich flavor. Splits at the South. 

Elton. — Very large, heart-shaped; skin pale yellow, 
with a mottled red cheek; stalk long and slender; flesh 
firm at first, becoming tender, juicy, with a rich, luscious 
flavor. Tree grows slowly, and is not disposed to split. 
Ripens May 20th to June 1st. 



FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



493 



Kirtland's Mary.— Very large, roundish heart- 
shaped; color light and dark red, mottled on a yellow 
ground; stalk of moderate size; flesh light yellow, half 
tender, rich, juicy, with a sweet flavor. 




Fig. 191— Cherry. Black Tartarian (after Bailey)'. 
Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 98. 

Napoleon (Royal Ann). — Large, heart-shaped; color 
yellowish-red; stem long; flavor fair, but not first class; 
flesh firm ; a good shipping cherry. Ripens rather late. 



494 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



Black Tartarian. — Very large, heart-shaped; color 
black; stem long; flavor rich and pleasant, Ripens early. 
This is a general favorite. 

Duke and Morello Cherries. 

The fruit with these cherries is usually acid or sub- 
acid, tender and pleasant. Trees are more bushy than 
the Hearts, and the plants are somewhat smaller. The 
varieties are as follows: 




Fig. 192 — Cherry. English Morello (after Bailey). Large 

Morello. Dutch Morello. Donald's Morello. Cornell 

Experiment Station Bulletin 98. 

Reine Hortexse. — Fruit large, bright red, tender, 
juicy, nearly sweet, and delicious. Tree grows vigorously, 
bears well, and if planted on poor ground is not inclined 
to split. An excellent fruit. 

Belle Magnifique. — A large red cherry; rather acid, 
tender, juicy, and rich; fine for cooking, and for dessert 
when fully ripe. Tree ot slow growth, but bears pro- 
fusely. 



FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTUEE. 



495 



English Morello. — Tolerably large, roundish, nearly 
black; flesh reddish-purple, tender, juicy, of a pleasant 
subacid flavor. The common Morello of this country is 
smaller and inferior to the above. Ripens May 20th. 

Plumstone Morello. — Large, dark red, rich and fine 
flavor; the best of all Morellos. Tree slow grower, and 
has small, wiry shoots. 

Sweet Montmorency. — Fruit of medium size, round, 
and a little flattened; skin pale amber in the shade, light 




Fig. 193— Cherry. May Duke (after Bailey). Coruell Experiment fetation 

Bulletin 98. 

red, slightly mottled in the sun; stalks long and slender, 
inserted in a small, even depression; flesh yellowish, ten- 
der, sweet and excellent. One of the best at the South. 

May Duke. — Fruit roundish, medium size, and in clus- 
ters; skin lively red at first, dark red when ripe; flesh 




(496) 



Plate 7— Cocoanut Palm. 



FEDITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 497 

reddish, tender, melting, very juicy; rich and excellent 
when fully ripe. Ripens early in May. 

Early Richmond ok Kentish. — Fruit small to 
medium, round, a little flattened; grows in pairs; skin 
bright red, growing dark when ripe; stalk one and a 
fourth inch long, stout, and set in a pretty deep hollow; 
flesh melting, juicy, and of a rich, sprightly flavor. A 
hardy variety and excellent for cooking. 

Late Kentish. — Resembles the above, but is two 
weeks later; a little larger and excellent for cooking, pre- 
serving and drying. 

Marketing. — The 24-quart crate is suitable for this 
fruit when shipped in quantity. The best varieties, how- 
ever, may be shipped with profit in the climax basket. 

COCOANUT. — (Coco* nucifera, Linn.) 

This plant is propagated by seed. The nuts are placed 
in holes one and a half to two feet deep, partly covered 
with earth, and as the seedling grows the hole is grad- 
ually filled until the surface is reached. The seedlings 
are transplanted to the field where the trees are to per- 
manently grow, and set out twenty-five or thirty feet 
apart. They will begin fruiting, under favorable circum- 
stances within seven years, and will continue bearing- 
nuts for more than sixty years. These nuts grow in 
bunches, with five to fifteen in each bunch, and a well- 
grown tree will produce from eighty to one hundred nuts 
each year. The cocoanut is peculiarly adapted to the 
coast of South Florida, and extensive plantations are to 
be found in that portion of the State. But little attention 
has been devoted to developing varieties. 

CURRANT.— (Ribes.) 
The currant is a low shrub, a native of Great Britain 
and the northern parts of Europe and America; with 
32 



498 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



smooth branches, doubly-serrate, pubescent leaves, and 
yellowish flowers, which ripen early in the spring. The 
fruit ripens with the later strawberries and raspberries. 
It succeeds and thrives admirably in our mountain sec- 
tions, and will live and bear tolerably well here in a cool 
northern exposure, but would probably die the first sea- 
son near the sea-coast. 

The fruit is of an agreeable acid taste; when ripe it is 
used with sugar for dessert, and also alone, or mixed 
with raspberries, for jams, jellies and wine. It is used 
both green and ripe for stewing, tarts and pies. In cool 
climates it is the most easily cultivated and useful of 
small fruits. 

The currant is propagated from cuttings, which should 
be planted in the fall in a shaded place, but not under 
trees; the north side of a plank fence is an excellent situa- 
tion, provided it is open to the morning sun. 

The currant requires a moist, rich soil, and should be 
trained as a bush. All the pruning it requires is to cut 
out the superabundant old wood, and to shorten that of 
the last season's growth. 

There are two species of the currant — R. nigrum and 
R. rubrum. The Naples variety of the first species has 
been grown with some degree of success in Georgia, 
South and North Carolina and Texas. The following 
varieties of R. rubrum were cultivated by Mr. White in 
Athens, Georgia, with success, and are recommended: 

Red Dutch. — Fruit of large size, oblate, borne in clus- 
ters, and less acid than the common red; color fine trans- 
parent red. 

White Dutch. — Large, yellowish-white, less acid than 
the red varieties. 

We could describe several other varieties, but not 
having had any success with them, we only give those 
with which we have succeeded. 



FKU1TS VABIETIES AiND CULTUKE. ±\)\) 

The following additional varieties are recommended 
by the Division of Pomology as suitable for North and 
South Carolina and Georgia: Cheery, Fay, Versail- 
laise, Victoria, and White Grape. The Cherry, Fay, 
and White Grape are especially desirable in Eastern 
Texas. 

Marketing. — It is customary to send this fruit to 
market in 24 or 32-quart boxes. 

THE FIG.— (Ficus Carica.) 

The Fig is a large shrub, or a low, spreading tree, ac- 
cording to the manner in which it is trained. Some 
varieties grow to the height of twenty or thirty feet, in 
favorable localities, but it generally does not reach above 
half that height. The leaves are large, cordate, and 
deeply sinuate, with three to five lobes, thick and pubes- 
cent on the under surface. The blossoms are not appa- 
rent, but concealed in the inside of the fleshy receptacle 
that becomes the fruit, which consists of a pulp, contain- 
ing numerous pericarps enclosed in a rind, which be- 
comes variously colored in the different varieties. Though 
the fruit is too sweet and luscious for those unaccus- 
tomed to it, with use it soon becomes a great favorite, 
and is perhaps the most wholesome and nutritious of 
fruits. The fig is a native of Asia and Africa, and has 
been cultivated from the earliest times. It is perfectly 
at home in all the low country and middle portions of the 
Southern States, and as universally cultivated below the 
mountain section as the peach. Large quantities of dried 
figs are imported into the United States, and are even 
sold in our own section. At very little expense, they 
could be put up at home and even exported at a profit. 

A good way to dry figs is to gather them when per- 
fectly ripe, and boil them in a preserving kettle in a 
syrup of nice sugar about five minutes. Take them out, 



500 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

dry them in a warm oven, or a kiln made for drying- 
fruits. When dry they can be packed in drums or boxes. 

Imported figs are dipped in a hot lye made of fig wood 
ashes, and dried on frames in the sun; when dried here 
they are apt to be infested with minute insects. The fig- 
is readily propagated by. shoots, or cuttings from the 
roots, planted in the fall or spring. Cuttings should be 
eight or ten inches long, and include a small portion of 
old wood at the base of each; if planted in a hot-bed in 
January, they will make handsome plants the same sea- 
son. Figs should be planted twelve to fifteen feet apart 
in good, rich earth. The Celestial Fig is best trained as a 
low tree. The best soil for the fig is a mellow loam of a 
calcareous nature. 

Ashes, marl, or composts prepared with mild lime form 
the best manure. If the soil is too moist the fig continues 
its growth too late in the fall, when the new wood is 
killed by the frost; while young, it is best to protect the 
tree during winter with branches of evergreens. I have 
found that young trees will mature their fruit and wood 
much more perfectly and better endure the winter, if the 
young shoots are broken off at the ends, and if all fruit 
forming after that is removed, and no more growth is 
permitted after the middle of September. 

As a general rule, however, with the fig, the more it is 
pruned the less is the crop. This does not apply to root 
pruning. 

If from too rank growth of wood the tree drops its 
fruit, cut off all the roots that project more than half the 
length of the branches. This may be done at any time 
during winter. 

Dark-Colored Varieties. 

Brunswick. — Fruit very large, long, pyriform, with an 
oblique apex; eye depressed; stalk short and thick; skin 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



501 



pale green, tinged with yellow in the shade, dull brown- 
ish-red in the sun, and sprinkled with pale brown specks; 
flesh reddish-brown, pinkish at the centre, semi-trans- 
parent, rich, sweet, and high flavored. Wood of strong- 
growth, and very hardy. 

Brown Turkey. — Fruit large, oblong or pyriform; skin 
dark brown, covered with thick blue bloom; flesh red 
and delicious. Said to be very hard and prolific. This is 
one of the best varieties grown. 

Blue Genoa. — Leaflets narrow, and the leaf seven- 
lobed; fruit large, long, obovate, tapering to the stalk, 
which is slender; skin almost black, 
glossy, covered with purple bloom; 
flesh bright red, of excellent flavor. 
This continues to bear fruit abun- 
dantly until frost, and, like the Bruns- 
wick, is indispensable. 

Celestial. — Fruit quite small, 
pyriform; stalk slender; skin very 
thin, dark colored, and covered with 
purple bloom; flesh light red, and of 
delicious flavor. 

In dry weather the fruit hangs on 
the tree until it shrivels, improving in 
sweetness and flavor. Trees grow quite large, and are 
very productive, yielding constantly from July to Octo- 
ber. Leaves five-lobed. Very hardy. 




Fig. 194— Celestial. 



White, Yellow, and Green Varieties. 

Lemon White, or Common White. — Fruit turbinate, 
flattened; stalk short; skin pale yellowish-green; flesh 
white and sweet, not high flavored. Ripens quite early, 
and is a good bearer. Its color renders it a favorite for 
preserving. 



502 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



The following additional varieties have also been found 
to be especially desirable figs: Green Ischia (White 
Ischia or White Italian), Black Ischia. 

Marketing. — The usual method of shipping the fig is 




Fig. 195— Lenion Fig. 

in the dried form, packed in small fig boxes. The plan 
for drying is given above. 

GOOSEBERRY. — (Riles oxyacanthoides.) 

The Gooseberry, like the Currant, is a native of Europe. 
Green, it is used for pies, tarts, and puddings; ripe, it is 
a verv agreeable dessert fruit. It is more impatient of 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 503 

heat than the currant, and cannot be expected to thrive 
except among the mountains. It is like the currant, pro- 
pagated from cuttings, likes the same soil and treatment 
generally, even in the Northern States, and in our moun- 
tain region the fruit is liable to mildew, the foreign varie- 
ties beiug much more subject to it than the native 
varieties. 

Houghton's Seedling, Downing's Seedling, Pale Red, 
and Red Jacket are the best native varieties we have 
seen. Champion is recommended by the Division of 
Pomology as especially desirable in Eastern Texas. 
Chautauqua, of the Grassularia species, has also been I 
grown successfully in Eastern Texas. Woods' earth, or 
leaf mould, and ashes, are the best manures for both the 
currant and gooseberry that we have tried. 

Marketing. — Pick green, but when fully grown, before 
the coloring of the ripe condition begins to show\ Pack in 
baskets. 

THE GRAPE.— ( Vitis.) 

The vine was one of the first plants brought into culti- 
vation. The foreign grapes are all varieties of Vitis vini- 
fera, and came originally from Asia. Of native grapes, 
we have Vitis Labrusca, of which Isabella, Catawba, Con- 
cord, Diana, Hartford Prolific, and many others, are 
varieties; Vitis Bourquiniana and T T . aestivalis, which 
include the wild Summer and the Frost Grape. Of the 
cultivated varieties, the Herbemont, Lenoir, and others 
of the same class; Vitis rotundifolia, which includes the 
wild Muscadine, or Bui lace, of the South, and the Scup- 
pernong. 

Our American grapes are seedlings from the wild varie- 
ties, removed some one, two, and three generations from 
the original type. Foreign grapes do not succeed in our 
climate in open air or out-door cultivation. All the foreign 



5U4 GAKDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

varieties do well both North and South, in cold graperies, 
under glass. 

The grape is a cooling and refreshing fruit of the 
highest excellence; green, it is used for pies and tarts; 
when ripe, it is a nutritious and most delicious dessert 
fruit, and is also used for preserving and jellies. The 
dried fruit, or raisins, are employed extensively for the 
dessert, and in many preparations of cookery. The leaves 
are an elegant garnish to other table fruits. But the chief 
product of the grape is wine, which is superior to that 
made of any other fruit. 

Large quantities of wine are now made in the United 
States, more especially in California, where most of the 
foreign varieties succeed. In the Southern States vine- 
yard culture has proved a failure with all derived from 
the Labrusca and Aestivalis species. After one or two 
fair crops the vines become stunted and unfruitful, or if 
stimulated by extra culture and manuring, both vines 
and fruit mildew and rot. There are but very few varie- 
ties which can be depended upon with anything approach- 
ing certainty. 

Since the great development in the methods of spray- 
ing and treatment of fungus diseases, the statement made 
by Mr. White in the last paragraph must be consider- 
abl} r modified. Many varieties of the V. Labrusca have 
been tested during the past ten years by the agricultural 
experiment stations in the South, and the results have 
been highly satisfactory. Mr. White made the above 
statement more than forty years ago, when our knowl- 
edge concerning fungus diseases and their treatment was 
exceedingly limited, but since the establishment of the 
experiment stations so much activity has been manifested 
among the botanists and horticulturists to overcome 
fungus and insect attacks on the grapes, many of the 
varieties which failed during Mr. White's day are now 



FRUITS VARIETIES AAD CULTURE. 



505 



being successfully grown iu many of the prominent vine- 
yards throughout the South. For spraying formulae and 
methods of application the reader is referred to the chap- 
ter devoted to that subject. 

The grape is planted by the vine-growers on level 
ground, in rows ten feet apart and eight feet in the row, 
but on hillsides a less distance may be adopted. The vine- 




Fig. 1 ( J6— Catawba Grape. 

yard is laid off with a line, and a stake put down where 
each vine is to grow; then a broad hole, a foot deep, is 
dug, in which are placed two cuttings, six or eight inches 
apart at the bottom, in a slanting position, but with the 
top eyes only about an inch apart, and even with the sur- 
face. Throw in a shovelful of well-decayed leaf mould, 
that the cuttings may strike freely. Cover with an inch 
of charcoal dust, or light mould, when the cuttings are 
planted. The cuttings should be short-jointed and well 



506 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

ripened, each cutting having about four eyes, or buds. 
Cut them off close to the lower joint, and about an inch 
above the upper. The earth should be pressed closely 
about the cuttings. The best time for putting them out 
is the last of November or December. The finest vines 
are raised from cuttings planted where they are to re- 
main. Being undisturbed by removal, they are more 
thrifty and long-lived. Remove all the cuttings but one, 
if more than one succeeds, and use them to replace where 
others have failed. During the summer, keep the ground 
clean and light, by repeated hoeings, and pull off super- 
fluous shoots, leaving but one or two to grow at first, and 
one eventually. 

In fertilizing the grape the fact must be borne in mind 
that the plant requires a large per cent, of potash and 
phosphoric acid, and, during the fruiting season, a small 
application of nitrogenous manure may be applied; not 
enough, however, to cause a too rapid development of 
canes to the detriment of the fruit-bearing powers. Mr. 
Starnes, the horticulturist of the Georgia Experiment 
Station, recommends the following formula for a good 
grape fertilizer: 

Cotton-seed meal 1,000 pounds. 

High-grade acid phosphate 500 pounds. 

Kainit 500 pounds. 

2,000 pounds. 

" The fertilizer should be used at the rate of two pounds 
per vine — one-half the amount, or one pound to be mixed 
with the second layer of dirt excavated from the holes. 
This pile or mound being used to fill the holes after the 
top soil has been sifted around the roots of the plant, the 
fertilizer does not come into immediate and direct con- 
tact with the young rootlets; but as it becomes soluble 
is carried down in a dissolved and assimilable state. The 
rest of the fertilizer should be applied interculturally at 



FEUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 507 

the time of either the first or second working — preferably 
the latter. Drill it on both sides of the row with a fer- 
tilizer horn, covering with a cultivator or scrape. 

" The formula for the second year might be appro- 
priately constructed as follows: 

Any standard, complete fertilizer 100 pounds. 

Cotton-seed meal 30 pounds. 

Kainit 50 pounds. 

Acid phosphate (high grade) 20 pounds. 

200 pounds. 



u n 



The third year the vines will come into bearing, and 
the object of the grower from this time on will be to ob- 
tain fruit, not wood. This latter will take care of itself. 
Phosphoric acid and potash must be supplied in abun- 
dance, and hence for a permanent formula for the third 
and subsequent years it will be well to use the following: 

High-grade acid phosphate 900 pounds. 

Kainit 900 pounds. 

Cotton-seed meal 200 pounds. 

2,000 pounds. 

" The above is a low-grade fertilizer and should be ap- 
plied as before, at the rate, however, of three pounds per 
vine, instead of two." 

The training and pruning of the grape vine are essen- 
tial to perfect fruit development and convenience in 
gathering the crop. There are excellent works in exist- 
ence fully devoted to this subject, and which explain 
clearly the modus operandi. The reader is advised to study 
such books if a vineyard of large dimensions is contem- 
plated; but, to assist those persons who have not the 
opportunity to examine such works, and who desire to 
grow grapes on a limited scale, the following general in- 
struction is given. The material used in the preparation 
of what follows on pruning and training has been 



508 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

liberally drawn from the writings of Professor E. G. 
Lodeman, late horticulturist of Cornell University Ex- 
periment Station; Professor L. H. Bailey, of the same 
institution, and Mr. Hugh N. Starnes, horticulturist of 
the Georgia Experiment Station. 

For a better understanding of the terms used the fol- 
lowing definitions are given: 

tihoot. — The growth of wood less than one year old. 

Cane. — Mature shoots of one year's growth. 

Arm. — Mature wood stems of three years' and more 
growth. 

Spur. — A shortened or pruned cane, generally bearing- 
only from one to four buds. 

" The operation of priming the vine is performed for 
the sole purpose of removing such wood as will not bear, 
or such as is supposed to interfere with the production of 
the finest crop of fruit that the plant is able to mature. 
Its primary object, therefore, is to reduce the amount of 
bearing wood, and thereby thin the fruit so that the roots 
of the vine are not taxed beyond their capacity. 

"All the fruit is, of course, borne upon the shoots which 
grow from the buds now found upon the canes; the canes, 
therefore, must be removed, and not the older wood, for 
the latter serves as the framework upon which the canes 
are maintained. 

" In cutting away the canes, all wood which has not 
properly matured should be removed, and those shoots 
which have made an excessive growth, forming ' bull 
canes,' are also undesirable. The medium-sized, short- 
jointed, and well-matured wood is to be preferred, and 
such wood onl} r . Yet some of this well developed w T ood 
must also be sacrificed, until the amount allowed to re- 
main upon the plant is reduced to the_ proper proportion. 
Assuming that the plant can mature the fruit produced 
by twenty-four buds (the number of buds left may vary 



FKUITS VARIETIES AXD CULTURE. 509 

from two to fifty or more), about thirty buds could be 
allowed to develop. These should be uuiformly dis- 
tributed according to the system of training employed; 
they may be left upon five canes, each cane having six 
buds, or the distribution may be varied according to cir- 
cumstances. But such is in general the method adopted 
in the vineyard for estimating the proper amount of bear- 
ing wood to leave upon each cane. As a result of such 
systematic pruning, the fruit from the vine is larger and 
more fair; it is also produced more regularly, since the 
maturing of too heavy a crop weakens the vine so that 
it is unable to mature even an average amount of fruit 
the following year. A vine properly pruned and fertilized 
should bear about the same amount of fruit each year 
from the time it comes into full bearing. A secondary 
benefit derived from pruning is the reduced stature of the 
plant. This allows more vines to be set upon a given 
piece of land, and it enables the work of cultivating, 
spraying and harvesting to be performed much more 
easily and profitably. 

" Training, on the other hand, is almost wholly a mat- 
ter of convenience. It does not affect the strength of the 
vine or the value of the crop in any essential particular. 
The training of a vine refers to the disposal or arrange- 
ment of the various parts of the vine after pruning has 
taken place. The method of training adopted determines 
the operator to leave certain growths in certain portions, 
not because more or better fruit is expected, but for the 
reason, perhaps, that the fruit may be harvested with 
greater ease; that a laborious operation may be wholly 
dispensed with, or that there may be less danger to the 
maturing crop from the winds or other natural agencies. 
The method of training adopted by a vineyardist is 
largely the result of personal preference, or of education, 
although soil and variety are important factors in the 



510 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 

selection of the system. The health and vigor of the 
vines are rarely affected by the method in which it is 
trained, and although some system of training must be 
adopted in every vineyard, still altogether too much 
weight has been laid by most horticultural writers upon 
the particular merits of the various systems, while the 
actual ruinous effects of bad pruning have not always 
been sufficiently emphasized. A vine properly trained is 
desirable, but a properly pruned vine is essential to the 
highest success. 

" 1. The amount of fruit which a vine can bear and 
mature in the highest perfection is limited; when this 
limit is exceeded the fruit deteriorates. 

"2. Upon the fruit the effect of overproduction is to 
reduce the size of the berries and of the clusters, and 
probably also to impair the quality; the vines make a 
poor growth, the foliage is small, and the vigor of the 
plant is generally reduced. ^Yhen a vine has been allow T ed 
to overbear, especially when it is young, years may some- 
times be required before a vine returns to its normal 
condition. 

" 3. A plant which is carrying less fruit than it is capa- 
ble of maturing generally produces a very heavy foliage 
and an excess of wood. 

" 4. All the fruit of the vine in any one year is borne 
upon the shoots of that year, which grow from the canes 
produced the preceding year; and since the number of 
clusters borne upon a single shoot is fairly constant (vary- 
ing generally from one to three), the number of buds left 
upon a vine when it is pruned, determines with consider- 
able accuracy the number of clusters which the vine will 
possess. Usually more buds are allowed to remain than 
would be' safe if each one w r ere sure to be perfect. 

" 5. The position of the bearing wood upon a vine is 
of secondary importance as regards the effect upon the 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



511 



quantity and quality of the fruit; but as a frequent 
change or renewal of the entire top of the vine appears 
to be desirable, the young bearing wood should be as near 
the root of the plant as circumstances will allow. When 
the important relation of these essential points to success 
ful grape growing is thoroughly considered, the secondary 
character of training of the vine becomes apparent." 




Fig. 197 — Overhead Kniffin, or Caywood System. 



There are many systems of training the vines, all of 
which may be grouped into three classes, depending upon 
the direction in which the shoots are made to grow. 



1. The upright system. 

2. The pendant, or drooping, system. 

3. The horizontal system. 

The first, or upright system, is well illustrated in the 
method adopted in some sections of the South, where the 



512 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 







Fig. 198— Horizontal Arm Spur System. 




Fig. 199— Continuous Arbci System— Pruned Vines. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 513 

vines are trained to posts. The liorizoiital-arui spur, or 
Fuller system, is another illustration of the upright 
method. The method of training by arbor is the horizon- 
tal system, and it has its advantages as well as disad^ 
vantages. The scuppernong is generally cultivated in 
this way. The overhead Kniffin is a representation of the 
drooping system, and this system is very popular through 
many sections of the South. 

Where grapes are cultivated on a small scale it pays 
the cultivator to bag the fruit, the recompense coming m 
the shape of superior fruit, and protection against the 
attacks of insects and disease. 



33 



514 



GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 



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FRUITS VARIETIES AM) (TLTURE. 



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516 



GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 



Leading Market Varieties of Grapes. 

Bertrand, Diamond (Moore's), 

Concord, Herbeniont, 

Brighton, Ives, 

Delaware, Niagara, 

Diana, Perkins. 

Leading Wine Grapes. 
RED. 
Bertrand, Herbeniont, 

Clinton, Ives, 

Concord, Lenoir, 

Cynthiana, Norton's Virginia, 

Thomas. 



Catawba, 

Delaware, 

Elvira,* 



WHITE. 



Missouri Riesling, 



Niagara, 



Noah, 
Scuppernong. 



Wine. — There is no more art or mystery in making- 
wine than in making cider. The grapes are crushed be- 
tween wooden rollers, which run sufficiently near each 
other to crush the grapes, but not the seeds. 

To make red wine, the crushed grapes should stand 
about twenty-four hours before pressing, so as to extract 
a portion of the coloring matter from the skins, when they 
may be pressed by means of an ordinary screw press. To 
each gallon of juice one and a half pounds of good clari- 
fied sugar must be added. If made from the pure juice 
of the grape, the wine will be thin, weak, poor, acid, and 
astringent stuff, not better than hard cider. All the best 



* This grape makes the famous San Louis Sauternes Florida wine. 



FRUITS VARIETIES A?sD CULTURE. 



517 



foreign wines have a large portion of brandy added; such 
as the Madeira and Sherry have near twenty per cent. In 
February or March following the wine should be racked 
off into clean casks, if intended for still wine, or bottled, 
if for foaming wine. At the time of bottling a table- 




Fig. 200 — The Scuppernong. 

spoonful of No. 1 clarified sugar must be put into each 
bottle, which should be well corked. Some recommend 
rock candy to be added. We have found nothing better 
than good clarified sugar. 

The Scuppernong. — We consider this very peculiar 
grape one of the greatest boons to the South. It has 



518 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH, 

very little resemblance to any of the grapes of the other 
sorts. It is a rampant grower, and requires little, if any, 
care or culture; grows well in any soil south of the 
Potomac river; has none of the shaggy bark peculiar to 
other vines, and bears only from the old, and not from the 
current shoots, as do other grapes. The leaves are cor- 
date, or heart-shaped, coarsely serrate, smooth on both 
upper and under surfaces. It blooms from the loth to 
the last of June, and ripens its fruit the last of September 
and beginning of October. It has no diseases, in wood, 
leaf, or fruit, and rarely, if ever, fails to produce a heavy 
crop. We have never known it to fail. 

To this type of grape also belong the following men- 
tioned in the table on a preceding page : Flowers, Tender- 
pulp and Thomas, which belong with the Scuppernong 
to Vitis rotundifolia. The first three produce black, and 
the last a yellow-white fruit. These grapes are peculiarly 
southern in origin and adaptability. 

Brilliant (Lahr. -Hyhr.).— Originated by T. V. Munson, 
Denison, Texas. The result of a cross between Lindley 
and Delaware effected in 1883. Vines hardy and vigorous; 
bunches above medium, shouldered, compact; berries 
large, fully the size of Concord, resembling Delaware in 
color; skin thin, but quite firm; flesh tender and very 
juicy; flavor rich, sprightly, equal to Delaware. This is 
thought by many to be the best of the grapes originated 
by Professor Munson. The large berries, with their 
superior quality renders it one of the best grapes for table 
use, and the Brilliant should be included in every 
amateur collection. It will probably prove valuable as a 
market variety. 

Niagara (Lair. X). — Originated by Hoag & Clark, 
Lockport, New York, in 1871'; a cross of Concord and Cas- 
sady; vines very vigorous and very productive; bunches 
large, compact, sometimes shouldered ; berry large, round- 



FRUITS VARIETIES AMD CULTURE. 



519 



ish; pale green in color, changing to pale yellow when 
fully ripe; skin thin, tough; flesh tender, juicy, sweet; 




Fig. 201— Brilliant (after R. L. Watts). 



similar to Concord in quality, ripening about with Con- 
cord. The Niagara is largely cultivated in Tennessee. It 



520 



GARDENING FUR THE SOUTH. 



is far from first class in quality, but the beauty of both 
bunches and berries, vigor and great productiveness of 




Fig. 202— Niagara (after R. L. Watts). 

vines, render it a special favorite, and it leads all other 
white grapes in quantity grown for market. 

Diamond (Labr. X). — Originated by Jacob Moore, 



FKUITS VARIETIES ANt) CULTUKE. 



521 



Attica, New York, from seedling of Concord fertilized by 
Iona; vine vigorous and productive; bunch large, corn- 




Fig. 203— Diamond (after R. L. Watts). 

pact, shouldered; often double shouldered; berries above 
medium size, round, greenish- white ; skin thin, rather 
tough; flesh tender, juicy, of high quality. We consider 



522 



GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 



this one of the best white grapes. It is well adapted both 
for market purposes and home culture. Ripe August 5th. 




Fig. 204— Herbemont (after R. L. Watts). 

Diamond is recommended by leading grape-growers of 
this country. 

Herbemont (Aest.) Synonym, Warren; Herbemonte's 



FRUITS VARIETIES AXD CULTURE. 



523 



Maderia, Warrenton, Neil. — Origin unknown; a most 
vigorous grower and exceedingly productive; bunches 




Fig. 205— Brighton (after R. L. Watts). 



very large, long, shouldered and usually compact; berries 
small, black, with a blue bloom; skin thin; flesh tender, 
very juicy, rich, sprightly; quality very good. Ripe the 



524 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



latter part of September; a very valuable late grape for 
home use. 

Brighton (Ldbr. X Tin.). — Originated by Jacob Moore, 




Fig. 206— Winchell (after R. L. Watts). 

Brighton, New York; a cross between Concord and Diana- 
Hamburg; vine hardy, vigorous; canes medium to long- 



FEUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 525 

jointed; foliage abundant; leaves large; bunch medium 
to large; moderately compact, shouldered; "berries 
medium to large, round, light red at first, changing to a 
dark crimson or maroon when fully matured, sometimes 
almost black, and covered with an abundant lilac bloom. 
The berries adhere well to the peduncle; skin thin but 
tough; flesh tender, slight pulp, sweet, juicy, slightly 
aromatic; very slightly vinous, and of very good quality 
for an early grape. It has its best flavor when it first 
ripens, but becomes pasty and looses its sprightly flavor 
when full ripe." — A. J. Downing. Uipe August 4th; vines 
very productive. It yields the largest crops when planted 
with other varieties to assist in fertilization. This variety 
is largely grown in the Eastern States, where it is the 
leading table grape. 

Winchell (Lahr.), on Green Mountain. — A chance 
seedling found on the slopes of the Green Mountains of 
Vermont; bunches above medium, compact, well should- 
ered; berries medium, round, greenish-white; skin thin, 
quite tender; flesh tender, very sweet, rich, pleasant; 
quality very good. Eipe July 30th. Eminent grape- 
growers throughout the country have made many compli- 
mentary remarks concerning the Winchell, or Green 
Mountain grape. We consider it probably the best white 
grape in our vineyard for the home collection, and see no 
reason why it should not be highly profitable for market 
purposes. 

Delaware. — This is one of the best grapes cultivated 
in the South. The fruit is rather small, round, of a red 
color and delightful flavor. It is one of the standard 
grapes, and is popular wherever grow 

Marketing. — The packing must be made so firm that 
there will be no shifting of the fruit in the basket. All de- 
fective and green or overripe grapes must be cut from the 



526 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



bunches b}^ scissors, and the bunches must be carefully 
assorted. The 5 and 10-pound baskets are used usually 




Fig. 207— Delaware. 



for shipping grapes to markets. Handle the fruit as little 
as possible, so as to avoid injuring the " bloom," which 
makes the grape look so attractive and fresh when ex- 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 527 

posed for sale. Turn the steins down as the bunches are 
placed in the basket and fill slightly above the top, so that 
when the cover is placed on the fruit will be firmly 
pressed into a secure position. This method of packing 
will insure a stemless surface when opened, and fruit will 
be better preserved in transportation. 

GUAVAS.— (Psidium.) 

There are several species and a number of varieties of 
this delicious fruit. The most important and those com- 
manding popular favor in Southern Florida, where the 
plant attains its best growth, are Apple (P. g ua Java), 
Common Guava (P. guajava), Chinese or Mexican (P. 
lucidum), Cattley or Strawberry (P. cattleianum), White 
Winter (P. guajava). 

The flowers are white, fragrant, and are in great num- 
bers on the plant; the fruit is round, varying in size from 
one to three or four inches in diameter; the color of the 
fruit is either red, yellow or green; the flesh is crimson 
or yellow, and the flavor subacid, with a pleasant taste. 
The great objection to the fruit is the large number of 
seeds it contains, in some instances as many as four 
hundred. 

The guava makes an excellent evaporated fruit, and, 
if the number of seeds can be reduced by selection and 
cultivation, it will become an important addition to the 
list of commercial fruits. It is highly esteemed for des- 
serts, cooking and preserving and making into jellies. 
It is propagated by seeds, cuttings and layers. The young 
plant begins bearing when three years old, and some- 
times earlier. It attains the size of a tree only in South- 
ern Florida, while farther north it is more like a shrub. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 529 

LOQUAT OR JAPANESE MEDLAR. 
(Eriobotrya or Photinia Japunica.) 

This plant belongs, to the Rosaceae family, and was 
introduced into this country a few years ago from China 
or Japan. Its popularity is steadily increasing in the 
orange regions of Florida and Louisiana, where it is culti- 
vated successfully. The fruit forms in clusters from 
white flowers of remarkable fragrance; it is small, one to 
one and a half inch in diameter, of a creamy yellow color, 
and in shape resembling a plum. The quality is subacid, 
juicy and refreshing. Ripens from February to May. 

Cultivation. — It prefers a well-drained, sandy loam soil 
with a clay subsoil. Plant at distances adopted in the 
cultivation of the peach. The propagation is generally 
by seeds, and but little effort has been put forth to im- 
prove the Loquat by selection, although it seems to be 
susceptible to decided change when judiciously treated. 
The stocks used for its propagation should be some plant 
belonging to the Rosaceae family. 

MANGOES.— ( Mangifera Indira.) 

This is a tropical fruit and will not thrive above the 
latitude where thin ice forms. It is grown in Southern 
Florida for home use, since the delicate nature of the 
fruit will not permit of shipping to any great distance. 
The tree is large and spreading with lanceolate leaves 
fully seven inches long. The flowers are white and 
grow in clusters at the ends of the branches. The fruit 
is shaped something like a cucumber, varying in color 
from green to orange. The plant grows rapidly, and, 
under proper treatment, will fruit when four years 
old. It can be propagated by budding, grafting or from 
the seeds. The following other varieties are grown in 
Florida: 
34 




Pla'e 9— Pawpaw. (Photo, by 0. P, Haven.) 




> 0) Plate 10— Pawpaw Section. (Photo, by O. P Haven.) 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 531 

Common Mangoes. — Originated in the- East Indies; 
fruit large, reniform, yellow and red in color; quality good 
and ripens in summer. The tree is vigorous and prolific. 

Apricot. — Originated in East Indies; fruit medium 
size, kidney-shaped, red and yellow in colors; very good 
flavor. 

Apple, ok No. 11. — Originated in West Indies; fruit 
large, round, yellow; very good flavor. A vigorous grower. 

MINOR TROPICAL FRUITS. 

Avocado Pear (Persea gratissima). 
Oherimoya (Anoint cherimoiia). 
Custard Apple (Anonareticulata). 
Granadilla (Passiflora edulis). 
Hog Plum (Spondius lutea). 
Jamaica Sorrel (Hibiscus sabdariffa). 
Mammee Apple (Lucuma mammosa). 
Otaheite Gooseberry (Phyllanthus distichus). 
Pawpaw {(Utrica papaya). 
Rose Apple (Eugenia jumbos). 
Sapodilla (Achras sapota). 
Sour Sop (Anona muricata). 
Spanish Lime (Melicocca bijuga). 
Star Apple (Chrysophyllum Cainito). 
Sugar Apple (Anona squamosa). 
Tamarind (Tamarindus Tndica). 

In speaking of these minor fruits the Florida State 
Horticultural Society, in its catalogue published in 1S97, 
says: "None of these are raised for market on a large 
scale, but all are desirable, and are extensively grown 
over a more or less extended area in the more tropical 
regions of the State, a number being produced in consid- 
erable quantities for local market or consumption. A 
few, like the Mammee Apple, Sapodilla and Avocada 



532 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Pear, skip well and rind ready sale; the Avocada 
Pear, lias brought good prices in the New York market. 
Some, like the foregoing, the Star Apple and the Hog 
Plum, are agreeable to most palates upon first acquaint- 
ance; others, like the Sugar Apple, Cherimoya and Sour- 
sop, which are much esteemed by those accustomed to 
the fruit, require an acquired taste to be appreciated. A 
number are grown for home use, almost or quite exclu- 
sively, either because too tender to transport, like the 
Sugar Apple and Pawpaw, or for their value for culinary 
purposes; of the latter, the Otaheite Gooseberry is a 
valuable acid fruit for cooking and preserving. The 
Jamaica Sorrel is not a fruit in the proper sense of the 
term, but produces a pulpy calyx, which makes an excel 
lent substitute for cranberries. The acid Soursop is used 
for flavoring, preparing drinks, etc., and is much esteemed 
in sickness. The Tamarind bears a pod with a pleasant 
acid pulp which, preserved in sugar, finds ready sale in 
the general market." 



&' 



MULBERRY.— ( Munis.) 

This genus includes two species worthy of cultivation, 
both hardy, deciduous trees, ripening their fruits in May 
with the later strawberries. The fruit is of very agree- 
able flavor, and of abundant subacid juice. An agree- 
able wine may be made of the juice. All the species of 
Mulberry are of the easiest culture, and are generally pro- 
pagated by cuttings of the branches or roots. The former 
should be shoots of the last season, having one joint of old 
wood; they may be three feet long, and buried half their 
length in the soil. The tree requires little or no pruning. 

The soil should be a rich, deep, sandy loam. The fruit 
falls when ripe; hence, when the tree commences bearing, 
the surface below should be kept in short turf, that the 
fruit may be picked from the clean grass. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 533 

Professor L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University, makes 
the following classification of the mulberry: 

1. The White Mulberry group (Morus alba). 

(a) Russian Mulberry (var. Tartarica). 

(b) Nervosa Mulberry (var. Venosa). 

2. The Multicaulis group {Morns latifolia). 

3. The Japanese group (Morns Japonica). 

4. The Black Mulberry group {Morns nigra). 

5. The Bed or Native Mulberry group {Morns rubra), 
(a) Lampasas Mulberry (var. tomentosa). 

Black Mulberry (Moms nigra) is a native of Persia, 
and is a slow-growing, low-branched tree, with large, 
tough loaves, often five-lobed, producing large and deli- 
rious fruit, frequently an inch and a half long, and an 
inch across; black, and tine flavored. Tree a very poor 
grower. 

Red Mulberry (Morns rubra) is a native of our woods; 
leaves large, rough, and generally heart-shaped; fruit an 
inch long, sweet and pleasant, but inferior to the black. 
The vigorous growth aud fine spreading head of this 
variety make it worthy of culture as an ornamental tree, 
it is the most tenacious of life of any tree we have ever 
seen. Twenty-seven years since we dug one up in our 
garden, and annually up to the present time shoots put up 
from fragments left in the ground, and thus far we have 
been unable to exterminate it. If the cherry is planted 
near the house, and the Mulberry a little more' distant, 
the latter will often attract the birds from the former. 

The varieties recommended for the South are: 

Downing's Everbearing. — Originated by Charles 
Downing, of Newburgh, New York, from the seed of 
Morus multicaulis. Tree very vigorous and productive; an 
estimable variety, and surpassed by none except the black 
English, and possessing the same rich, subacid flavor. It 



534 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



continues in bearing a long time. Fruit one and a quarter 
inch long and nearly a half-inch in diameter. Color, 
maroon, or intense blue-black at full maturity ; flesh juicy, 
rich, and sugary, with a sprightly vinous flavor. 

Hicks' Everbearing. — This mulberry originated in 
Georgia, and is very productive. It fruits from three to 




Fig. 208— Black Mulberry Tree. 

four months. It has an insipid, sweet taste, but is au 
excellent food for hogs and chickens. This tree should 
be grown by every one who raises poultry on an extensive 
scale. 

Stubbs' Mulberry. — Originated in Laurens county, 
Georgia, more than twenty years ago. It is a very vigor- 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 535 

ous grower, with broad foliage. The fruit is large, black 
and of excellent quality. The tree remains in fruit about 
two months. 

NECTARINE. — (Persica vulgaris, oar. Icevis.) 

The Nectarine is merely a peach with a smooth skin. It 
is impossible to distinguish the tree from the peach by its 
leaf and flowers. 

Nectarines usually produce nectarines from the seed; 
but the Boston Nectarine originated from a peach-stone. 

The tree is cultivated and pruned like the peach, and is 
propagated by grafting or budding on peach stocks. The 
great difficulty in raising Nectarines (and the same is true 
of the apricot and plum), is the curculio. The smooth skin 
of these fruits offers an inviting place for this insect to 
deposit its eggs. The injured fruit may be known by be- 
ing marked with a small, semi-circular scar, as if cut by 
a baby's nail. 

It is useless to plant either the Nectarine, Apricot, or 
Plum, especially in sandy soils, unless the trees are daily 
jarred, and the insects collected on sheets as they fall, 
and immediately destroyed. A limb may be sawed off a 
tree, and the stump hit a few smart blows with a mallet; 
if gently shaken, the insect will not let go its hold. Or 
another plan is to plant the trees by themselves, and 
admit poultry and hogs to eat the fallen fruit, which will, 
if other fruit gardens are not near, protect the crop. 
Spraying the tree as soon as the blossoms fall will be 
more effective; but not certain. For formula see chapter 
devoted to spraying. In using the spraying material great 
care must be exercised so that the leaves and tender twigs 
will not be injured with too strong arsenical compounds. 
The borer infests the Nectarine as Avell as the Peach. 
Aside from the curculio, the nectarine is as hardy and 
easily raised as the peach, though scarcely equal to the 



536 GARDENING FOB. THE SOUTH. 

best peaches in flavor. It requires the same soil and 
treatment as the peach. The best varieties are: 

Early Violet. — Glands reniform; flowers small, fruit 
large, roundish, pale yellowish-green, with a purplish-red 
check, mottled with brown; flesh whitish-red at the stone, 
melting, juicy, and delicious. Ripens July -Oth. 

Elruge. — Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit 
medium; roundish oval; suture slight; skin pale green, 
with deep violet or blood-red cheek, and minute brown 
specks; flesh pale green, pale red at the stone; melting, 
juicy, and rich; stone oval, rough,, and pale colored. 
Iiipens July -5th. 

Downton. — (Hands reniform; fruit large, roundish 
oval; skin pale green; flesh red at the stone, melting and 
delicious. Iiipens July 25th. 

Boston. — Glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, 
roundish oval; skin bright yellow, with a deep red cheek ; 
flesh yellow, not rich, but sweet and pleasant. Iiipens last 
of July. (Cling,) 

New White. — Glands reniform; flowers large; fruit 
large, nearly round; skin white, with slight tinge of red 
in the sun; flesh white, tender, juicy, vinous, and rich; 
stone small. Iiipens August 1st. 

Stanwick. — A European variety; skin pale greenish- 
white, shaded into deep violet in the sun; flesh white, 
tender, juicy, and rich; sweet, and without the slightest 
prussic acid flavor. Iiipens August 1st. (Free.) 

NUTS. 

There are several kinds of nuts worthy of cultivation 
by every planter, many of which are ornamental shade 
trees, besides being valuable for the fruit they yield. For 
convenience, we class them under one head. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



i37 



Chestnut (Castanea). — The Chestnut is a very large 
forest tree, and common to both continents. The Spanish 
Chestnut or Marron, produces a very large, sweet nut, 
and is propagated by grafting on our common chestnut. 
There are several varieties of this, of which " Marron de 




Fig 209 — The Burbank 'Early* - Chestnut. From Nature. 
(Amer. Gardening ) 



Lyon " is the best. It will bear the second year from the 
graft. Chestnuts are difficult to transplant when taken 
from the woods. The improved varieties are much 
superior to the wild sorts. The chestnut as a shade tree 
is very effective in landscape gardening. It is stated in 
a circular issued by the Division of Pomology, United 
States Department of Agriculture, that "the European 




a 



C 



D 

< 
I 



pu 



00 

CO 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



539 




Fig. 210. 
American ( 'hestnut. 



sweet chestnut (castanea sativa) lias been grafted for many 
years in France and England upon the European black 
oak (quercus rdbur), using young seedlings raised by plant- 
ing acorns where the trees are to remain permanently." 
A few experiments have been made 
recently in the United States with 
a degree of success, using the chest- 
nut oak {(literals primus) as a stock. 

The Common Wild American 
Chestnut (castanea dentata) grows 
in the mountains and the hilly 
regions of the South, and bears its 
fruit in great abundance. The nuts, 
however, are not as large as those 
produced on the imported varieties; but they are 
sweeter. The native chestnuts have been greatly im- 
proved by transplanting and grafting, and by careful cul- 
tivation. The demand for the nuts is steadily increasing. 
Large Spanish on Marron de Lyon (castanea sativa). 
The nuts are very large, but not as sweet as the Ameri- 
can. The large size com- 
mand attention, and there 
is a better market for them 
because of that fact. 

Japan Giant or Mam- 
moth (castanea Japonica). — 
The growth from the seeds 
is uncertain as to results, 

Fig. 211-Spanish Chestnut. and the geedg ar(i ()ften un _ 

reliable. Grafting is the only sure method to reproduce 
this plant in perfection. The burr generally contains as 
many as five large nuts. The trees do not grow tall, but 
are dwarf in habit. 

Chinquapin (castanea pumila). — This is a shrub gene- 
rally, but it sometimes grows to the size of a tree. It is 




540 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



hardy in most of the hilly regions of the Atlantic States 
from Virginia to Alabama. The nuts are small, solitary 
in the burr, of a beautiful mahogany color, and of a sweet 
flavor. The chinquapin grows wild, and but little effort 
has been exerted to improve it by cultivation. The nuts 
find their way into the local markets along with the wild 
chestnuts. 

Shell-Bark Hickory (Hicoria ovata). — This tree is 
found in fertile soils all over the United States, producing 

the common thin-shelled, 
white hickory nut. The 
tree is very regular and 
beautiful for ornamental 
purposes. There is con- 
siderable difference in the 
size and flavor of the nuts 
of different varieties. It 
is generally cultivated by 
planting the nuts in the 
fall; these should be 
slightly covered with leaf 
mould. 
Filberts (Corylus Avellana) are generally raised from 
layers. They should not be allowed to sucker; but trained 
to form low heads near the ground, which should be kept 
tolerably open by thinning out the small spray, and short- 
ening back the young shoots every spring. Of the varie- 
ties, 

Cosfori) is a large, oblong nut, with a thin shell, and of 
fine flavor. Prolific. 

White Filbert. — Like the last, but with a light yellow 
or white skin; husk long and tubular; nuts ovate. 

Lambert. — Nut compressed, large and oblong; the 
kernel has a rich flavor. Prolific. 

Purple Filbert. — The leaves and fruit have a purple 
color. A good variety. 




Fig. 212— Japanese Chestnut {Cwtrmea 
Jajionicn). 



FRUITS VARIETIES A>"D CULTURE. 



.11 



PECANS. — (Eicoria pecan.) 

This tree has been considerably cultivated by orchard- 
ings within the past few years, and in many sections of the 




Fig, 213— Paper Shell Pecan Tree (Large tree in centre of picture. ) 

South extensive orchards are now in existence, and are 
yielding fine revenues to the owners. The tree reaches 
its bearing period in eight to ten years after planting. 
The character of soil suitable for the hickory will serve 



542 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



admirably for growing the pecan. In Florida the ques- 
tion of growing this tree has long since been satisfac- 
torily answered. It has been found well adapted to the 
soil and climate of that State. It has also been success- 
fully grown for many years in Louisiaua aud Texas. From 
these States, probably, the largest quantity reaches 
market. In the making of an orchard it is best to plant 
one to two-year-old trees, since this age is more certain 
to grow than when older plants are taken. Pecans may 
be propagated from the seed, but this method is rather 
uncertain, and it is best to graft or bud. If raised from 
seeds proceed as follows: Prepare the land thoroughly by 

deep plowing; run off 



drills three to four feet 
apart, and place the 
nuts about fifteen inches 
apart in the drills. After 
one year old take up the 
plants carefully, pre- 
Fig. 214-Pecan Nut. serving as many fibrous 

roots as possible; cut off one-half of the tap root and 
reset at once 1 in the place where the orchard will be per- 
manently situated. The best variety of the pecan is the 
Louisiana and Tenas Paper Shell. — The shell, as 
the name indicates, is very thin and the nut is large. It 
commands a high price, because of the size of the nut, the 
thinness of the shell and the fine flavor of the kernel. 
There are several forms of this variety sold by nursery- 
men, known by such local names as Biloxi, Centennial, 
Colorado, Mexican, Pride of the Coast, Stuart, Van 
Deman, etc. 

WALNUTS. 

Madeira Nut, or English Walnut (Juglans Regia) is 
a fine, lofty tree, with a handsome, open head, producing 
the well-known nuts of the shops. It is produced from 




FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



543 



the seed, or by grafting. Likes a rich, moist soil. Juglans 
praeparturiens is similar to the above, but bears fruit 
when three years old, and is valuable on this account for 
the garden. 

Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) should have a place in 





Fig. 215— English Walnut (Jug- 
lans regia). 



Fig. 216— Japan Walnut. 



the grounds of the amateur, as it is not only a fine shade 
tree, but is valuable for its fruit and timber. 

Japan Walnut (Juglans Sieboldiana). — Shells of the 
nuts are thick, and the kernel is sweet. The nuts form in 
clusters. The tree produces a pleasing appearance, with 




Fig. 217 — Butternut (Juglans cineria). 

its large leaves, and makes an attractive addition to 
ornamental grounds, parks, etc. 

Butternut, or White Walnut (Juglans cineria), is a 
native American nut, greatly prized by many. The shell 
is thick and rough, and the kernel is rich in flavor. It 



544 GARDENING FOE, THE SOUTH. 

can be propagated by seeds, but the sure way to secure 
the type is to bud or graft. 

OLIVE. — ( Olea Europea.) 

The Olive is a low-branching, evergreen tree, rising to 
the height of twenty or thirty feet, with stiff, narrow, 
bluish-green leaves. The fruit is a drupe, of oblong, sphe- 
roidal form; hard, thick flesh of a yellowish-green color, 
turning black when ripe. The tree is a native of Greece 
and the seacoast ridges of Asia and Africa; it has been 
cultivated from time immemorial for the oil expressed 
from its ripe fruit. Where cultivated it answers all the 
purposes of cream and butter, and enters into every kind 
of cooking. Unripe olives are much used as pickles, 
which, though distasteful at first to most persons, become 
by custom exceedingly grateful, promoting digestion, and 
increasing appetite. The ripe Olive is crushed to a paste, 
when the oil is expressed through coarse hempen bags 
into hot water, from which the pure oil is skimmed off. If 
the stone is crushed the oil is inferior. Lime and potash 
should be applied as fertilizers, should the soil be defi- 
cient in these substances. 

Propagation and Culture. — Olive plantations arc 1 gen- 
erally formed from the suckers which grow abundantly 
from the roots- of old trees. 

It grows readily from cuttings and seeds. With the 
aid of a sharp knife secure the cuttings from strong, 
healthy young shoots, and remove all leaves except two 
or three at the top. Plant in boxes of moist sand, which 
are placed in warm, shady localities. After rooting the 
young plants are potted and given more sunshine for 
several months, when they are transplanted in the 
orchard. 

The cultivated Olive may perhaps also be grafted on 
our Olva Americana, or Devil Wood, which abounds on our 
seacoast. The best trees are from seeds which commence 



FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTUKE. 545 

bearing in five or six years, but are not remunerative 
until ten or twelve years old. The trees produce fifteen 
to twenty pounds of oil per year, and their longevity is 
greater than that of any other fruit tree. The dry lime- 
stone soils of Florida would probably become exceedingly 
valuable if planted with the Olive. 

It should be tried wherever the Orange will survive the 
winter. In planting, the trees are set from thirty to forty 
feet apart. The European varieties are many, but we 
enumerate only a few. 

In 1801 General Nathaniel Greene, of Revolutionary 
fame, planted four hundred olive trees at Dungeness, on 
Cumberland Island, Georgia, and in 1895 they were forty 
feet high and two and one-half feet in diameter. It is said 
that one thousand barrels of olives were gathered from 
these trees in one season. Unfortunately, the unusually 
cold weather of 1895 that damaged so seriously the 
orange trees of Florida, also killed these olive trees at 
Dungeness, so that they were cut down. Strong shoots 
are now putting forth from the stumps, and the proprietor 
is trying to start the trees in the direction of another 
magnificent growth. 

Mr. P. J. Berckmans, in speaking of the olive, makes 
the following comments: " Olives have been cultivated on 
the coast of Georgia and South Carolina for many years, 
and an excellent quality of oil has been produced. A 
peculiarity of the olive is that it flourishes and bears 
abundant crops on rocky and barren soils, where no other 
fruit trees are successful. Olive trees begin to bear fruit 
at from eight to ten years of age, but should not be 
planted farther north than this section (Augusta, Ga.), 
where they are sometimes injured by excessive cold." 

The following varieties are recommended : 

Nevadillo Blanco. — This is of Spanish origin, and 
is the variety from which most of the oil shipped from 
35 



546 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



Spain is extracted. The tree is a rapid grower, and the 
branches are pendant. 

Picholixe (oblonga). — This variety is an early fruiter, 
and the tree grows very rapidly. It is not so liable to in- 
sect attacks as is the case with some of the other varie- 
ties. In Florida and South Georgia this variety is very 
popular. 

THE ORANGE, LEMON, ETC. 

The Orange (Citrus) is a native of Asia. The rich 
golden fruit displayed among its dark, glossy, evergreen 




Fig. 218— Alligator Orange. (Photo, by 0. P. Havens. ) 

foliage renders it the most beautiful of fruit trees. The 
tree grows to the height of twenty to thirty feet, with a 
round, S3 T mmetrical head; the bark of the trunk is of an 
ashy-gray, while that of the twigs is green. The leaves 
are of a fine, healthy, shining green; its blossoms are 
delicately fragrant, and as the tree is in all stages of bear- 




(547) Plate 12— Sour Wild Orange. (Photo, by 0. P. Havens. ) 



548 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



ing at the same time, in flower and ripe golden fruit, 
nothing can surpass an orange grove in attractiveness. 
The wild, bitter-sweet orange is found in various parts 
of Florida as far north as 29° ; its occurrence is said to be 
indicative of a good soil. It may- have originated from the 
Seville orange introduced by the Spaniards. The orange 
is extensively cultivated in Florida, and somewhat on the 
coast of Georgia and Carolina. 




Fig. 219— Tangerine Orange. (Photo, by O. P Havens.) 



Lime is essential to the healthy growth of the tree; the 
best soil is a deep fertile loam on the banks of rivers. 

The wild orange taken from the woods is generally 
used as a stock to graft the most desirable varieties upon. 

There are about seventy-five varieties of oranges culti- 
vated, of two principal classes, viz. : The Sweet or China 
Orange, and the Bitter Seville or Wild Orange. The latter 
class is much the more hardy, but of no value as a dessert 
fruit. They are used in cooking, preserving, wine-making, 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



549 



and for flavoring. Of the sweet oranges, the Maltese has 
a thick and spongy rind, red and delicious pulp, but some- 
times with a trace of bitterness. The glands which 
secrete the oil are prominent. 

There are three species of oranges cultivated, viz.: 

Citrus bigaradia, or Bitter Oranges. 
Citrus nobilis, or Mandarins. 
Citrus aurantium, or Sweet Oranges. 




Fig. 220— ?atsuma Orange. (Photo, by 0. P. Havens.) 

The Horticultural Society of Florida, in the proceedings 
of the tenth annual meeting for* 1897, gives the follow- 
ing account and recommendations concerning these 
species and their varieties. Of the six varieties of bitter 
oranges mentioned in their catalogue the Bitter Sweet 
and PniLLirs' Bitter Sweet are recommended as con- 
stituting varieties of the " highest excellence in all the 
desired characteristics of season, quality, distinction, pro- 



550 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



ductiveness, etc.'" The varieties of Mandarines recom- 
mended are Satsuina and Tangerine. 

The Satsunia is a seedless variety of the Mandarin or 
" kid-glove " class, and it will stand a considerable reduc- 
tion of temperature, even to 25°, when other kinds of 
oranges will be destroyed. The color is a deep orange, 
and the flavor is juicy and rich. It matures fruit from 




SUM* 



Fig. 221 — Section ot Satsuma Orange. (Photo, by 0. P. Havens.) 

September to November, and is hardy as far north as 
Southern Georgia. It is well adapted for portions of the 
country in Northern Florida, Southern Georgia, and 
along the Gulf coast. The plant is prolific, and it begins 
bearing fruit when quite young. 

The varieties of sweet oranges recommended by the 
Florida Horticultural Societv are: 



Bessie, 

Boone, 

Centennial, 

Double Imperial Navel, 



Du ftoi, 
Early Oblong, 
Enterprise Seedless, 
Foster, 



FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



551 



Hart's Late, 

Hig -ley's Late, 

Hoinosassa, 

Imperial Blood, 

Jaffa, 

Jaffa Blood, 

King, 



May's Best, 
Nonpareil, 
Old Vini, 
Paper Bind, 
Parson Brown, 
Pineapple, 
Sanguinea, 




Fig. 222 — Washington Navel Orange. 

Majorca, 



(Photo, by O. P. Havens.) 

St. Michael Blood, 
Sweet Seville, 
Valencia Late, 
Vinous, 



Maltese Blood, 
Maltese Egg, 
Maltese Oval, 

Washington Navel (Bahia). 

The navel varieties are much esteemed on account of 
the delicate texture and superior quality of the fruit. 
They are generally shy bearers, although experience indi 



552 



GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 



cates that they are much more prolific upon rough lemon 
and Trifoliate stocks than as generally grown on orange 
stocks. The Blood varieties are sweet, and therefore 
marketable early in season. At this time their distinctive 
character is not apparent, and they have little advantage 
in market over other early sorts. As the season ad- 
vances their ruby tints develop until quite apparent on 




Fig. 223— Section of Washington Navel Orange. (Photo, by 0. P. Havens.) 

the exterior, and their quality continues to improve; at 
full ripeness they are equalled by few and surpassed by 
none. In locations sufficiently exempt from frost to per- 
mit their being held on the trees until they reach perfec- 
tion, they bring high prices, and are exceptionally profit- 
able. The Satsuma is valued on account of its hardiness, 
which is increased by being grafted on the hardy Trifo- 
liate stock. As it is marketable before cold weather (it 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



553 



ripens very early) many trees are planted in sections 
north of the usual range of oranges. 

Excluding the Navels, Bloods and Satsunias, noted 
above, and without disparagement to other sorts of equal 
merit, the following are suggested as a desirable list for 
general planting, arranged in order of succession: 




Fig. 224— King Orange. (Photo, by 0. P. Havens. ) 

Very Early. — Boone, Sweet Seville. 

Early. — Enterprise, Seedless, Parson Brown. 

Early Medium. — Nonpareil, Centennial. 

Medium. — Pineapple, Jaffa, Homosassa. 

Late Medium. — Majorca, Du Roi. 

Late. — Bessie, King, Maltese Oval. 

Very Late. — Hart's Late. 

The Lemon (Citrus Limonum) is cultivated like the 
orange, but has longer, lighter-colored leaves, with naked 
petioles or footstalks; flowers tinged with red externally; 
fruit oblong, with a swollen point; pale yellow color, with 
an acid pulp. Used mostly for flavoring, and lemonade 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 555 

and other cooling drinks. The trees are usually very pro- 
ductive. The following varieties are recommended and 
highly esteemed by. the fruit-growers in Florida: Belair, 
Eureka, Genoa, Imperial, Sicily, Yilla-Franea. 

The Lime (Citrus acida) has smaller flowers than the 
lemon, which are white; fruit small, round, and pale 
yellow color, with a slight protuberance at the end; very 
acid. Used for the same purposes as the lemon. The 
green fruit makes a delicious preserve. The varieties are: 
Mexican, Persian, Rangpur and Tahiti. The two last are 
excellent in quality. 

Citron (Citrus Medico). — has *arge, oblong, wingless 
leaves; flowers tinged with red or purple; the fruit is very 
large and lemon shaped, with warts and furrows. Kind 
thick and fragrant, pulp subacid. Used for preserves. 
The varieties are: Lemon, Lymon and Orahne. The last is 
generally considered to be the best in quality. 

Shaddock and Grape Fruit {Citrus Decumana) have 
leaves winged like the orange; flowers white; fruit globu- 
lar, and very large, weighing often six to eight pounds; 
rind very thick; pulp dry, sweetish, or subacid. The de- 
sirable varieties are: Aurantium, Blood Shaddock, For- 
bidden Fruit (usually applied to entire list). Hart, Josse- 
lyn, Mammoth or Orange Shaddock, Pernambuco, 
Triumph, Walter. 

Kumquats or Kin Kans (Citrus Japonica). — This citrus 
fruit originated in Japan, and is more hardy than the 
orange. It is known in Japan by the name of Kumqaat 
and in China by the name of Kin Kan. The plant is 
dwarfish in habit, but the shape is beautiful and attrac- 
tive. The fruit occurs in clusters, and is much desired 
for preserving, pickling and making into jams. The plant 
is very ornamental, and makes a desirable addition to the 
list of shrubs for the lawn in that portion of the country 
where the orange tree is successfully £rown. Because of 




(556) 



Plate 14— Kumquats or Kin Kans. (Photo, by 0. P. Havens.) 



FKUITSt — VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 557 

its small size the Kumquat is also well suited for room 
decoration, and it is made all the more attractive because 
of the bright yellow clusters of fruit which hang on the 
limbs in profusion all winter. The flowers are also abun- 
dant. There are two varieties, differing only in the size 
and shape of the fruit — the Marumi (round fruit) and 
Nagami (oblong fruit). The latter is the largest, and is 
the variety usually grown in Florida. 

Marketing. — Citrus fruits are packed in crates and 
barrels which are well ventilated. It is of the greatest 
importance that the fruits should be in prime condition 
before packing, because nothing so much detracts from 
the value of the package as to have unsound fruit mixed 
with the good. Great care should also be taken to select 
and grade the fruit and pack each size in separate crates, 
and, in the case of oranges, wrapping each one in tissue 
paper. Pack firmly and press in well, so that the pack- 
ages will not show shrinkage when the crates reach their 
destination. Fruit sells well when the greatest care is 
taken in packing the same sizes and qualities together 
and avoiding all unsound and unsightly forms. 

PEACH. — ( Persica vulgaris.) 

The Peach is a native of Persia, whence its cultivation 
has proceeded westward ; but it has nowhere found a soil 
or climate more congenial to it than in these Southern 
States. Indeed, the peach is the faA T orite, and in many 
instances the only fruit tree cultivated by our planters. 
It requires a soil of but moderate fertility; its enemies 
and diseases are but few, and the return so speedy that 
there is no excuse for being without good peaches. 

A somewhat serious difficulty in peach culture, which 
results from bad pruning, is the tendency to overbear 
and break down the limbs from the excess of the crop. 
More peach trees are destroyed or badly injured from 



558 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

this cause than any other. Peach trees should always 
be pruned by cutting off the extremities of the branches, 
so as to leave about one-half of the last year's growth. 
The fruit is produced on these small branches, and by 
reducing the top in this manner, overbearing is prevented, 
the fruit is effectually thinned, and is larger, finer 
flavored, and nearly as much fruit can be taken from each 
tree without danger of breaking. The tree is also kept 
low and close, and more trees and larger crops can be 
grown to the acre. 

This method of pruning is called shortening in, or head- 
ing in, and is expeditiously done with pruning shears. 
Old trees that have got out of shape can be pruned and 
brought into a symmetrical form by sawing off limbs of 
two or three years' growth at or near the forks; by this 
method old trees can be renewed in vigor as well as in 
form. Pruning can be performed at any time when the 
leaves are off. If it is wished to make young trees pro- 
duce early, they may be shortened in the last of July, the 
year they are transplanted. Care should be taken that 
the branches do not divide into forks, as they are exceed- 
ingly apt to split when bearing a crop of fruit. The peach, 
like all other fruit trees, should branch low, say within 
two feet of the ground, and be kept in a pyramidal or 
round form, as nearly as can be done. 

The loss of the fruit by decay as it approaches maturity 
is more annoying than anything else in peach culture. 

If the season is warm and wet very few kinds ripen 
well if on moist or rich earth or soil. There is a very 
common opinion that peaches propagated from the stones 
of unripe fruit are more liable to rot than those from 
stones or pits of fully ripened fruit; some also think decay 
is caused by planting the trees too deep. It is, however, 
certain that some varieties are much more subject to 
decay than others placed in the same position. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 559 

The most suitable soils to ripen sound and high flavored 
fruit are dry, but moderately fertile; hills and hillsides 
generally are the best locations for the peach; thinning 
the fruit so that no two peaches touch each other is very 
necessary in order to prevent decay. The peach is mostly 
used in its fresh state for the dessert, and is generally 
considered the most delicious fruit of temperate climates. 
When allowed to ripen on the tree, it is the most whole- 
some of fruits, and as an article of food is considerably 
nutritious. Peaches are also used for pies, are preserved 
in brandy and sugar, and are excellent when dried for 
winter use. For culinary purposes the clings are most 
preferred. Peaches and cream form a delicious dessert 
dish. 

For drying take those of the best quality, just as they 
are ripe enough to eat; halve them, remove the stones, 
and sprinkle over them a little nice sugar, and dry them 
in a brick oven, moderately warm. Thus prepared the 
aroma and flavor are preserved, and the}' are free from 
insects. If the peaches were fully ripe, no cooking will 
be required, but when used they are simply soaked in 
cold or warm water. Sufficient sugar, varying with the 
acidity of the fruit, is added before drying. The firm, yel- 
low fleshed are the best for drying. Peaches thus pre- 
pared are only inferior to the fresh fruit, as they retain 
much of the flavor. Dried in the usual way from unripe 
fruit, exposed to the sun, much of the flavor is dissipated. 
Peaches are excellent preserved in self-sealing cans, 
which now can be purchased at reasonable prices. 

Lime, potash and the phosphates are the chief elements 
the peach requires in the soil. Bone-dust and wood ashes 
are valuable applications, much more suitable than com- 
mon animal manures. They may be dressed with com- 
post of woods' earth, or swamp muck, if the soil is very 
poor. 



560 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

When the trees are planted the holes may be made 
large, and enriched with well-decayed manure, to give a 
good growth of wood. For this purpose guano is an excel- 
lent application; but it is fatal to the tree if it comes in 
contact with the roots. I have applied it with success to 
all kinds of fruit trees. After the holes are dug, a little 
guano is sprinkled in them; this is then covered with 
about two inches of good mould, on which the tree is 
planted. When the tree is planted, another sprinkling of 
guano may be added, and covered with a little more 
earth; two or three tablespoonfuls are sufficient for a 
tree, and but a small quantity is required for a large 
orchard. For this purpose, as well as for manuring most 
shrubs, rose bushes, etc., few applications are so cheap 
and satisfactory. After the tree begins to fruit, applica- 
tions of lime, ashes, or leaf mould are much better than 
those which excite growth, as they do not impair the 
flavor of the fruit or induce decay. 

The peach is best propagated by budding and grafting 
upon seedling peach stocks. There are, however, many 
varieties of the clings, particularly, that reproduce them- 
selves from the seed, especially if the tree from which the 
stone is taken stands apart from other varieties. It is 
believed that the stone of a seedling is more apt to repro- 
duce its kind than if taken from a budded tree. Seedlings 
often escape frosts that are fatal to the finer varieties, but 
the highest flavored varieties of seedlings are often quite 
as susceptible of injury as those budded or grafted; those 
varieties bearing large flowers are much less liable to be 
injured by frost than those having small ones. 

Plum stocks are recommended by foreign writers; but 
they are of little use in this climate, for the graft soon out- 
grows the stock and breaks off. Peach stocks are raised 
by planting the stones two or three inches deep, in the 
autumn or winter. If the stones are cracked they are 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 561 

more sure to grow. Abundance of stocks can often be 
procured by taking the volunteers that spring up under 
the trees in early spring, when about an inch high, and 
transplanting in rows three feet apart and one foot in the 
row. Plant them in good soil, where they will grow 
rapidly; if the season is good they will be of sufficient size 
to bud in August. When the inserted buds start in the 
following spring, the stocks may be cut down to within 
two inches of the bud; and then keep rubbing off the 
shoots or robbers for at least two months; otherwise the 
inserted buds will bo overpowered by them, and die, or 
make but feeble growth. 

The buds had best be inserted in the north side of the 
stock to screen them from the sun. Peach trees raised, or 
varieties originating, in the Northern States are not at all 
unfitted for our climate, yet there is some risk of import- 
ing trees from the North on account of diseases peculiar 
to that section from which Southern raised trees are 
exempt. 

Some varieties of European fruits are found to succeed 
better here than where they originated, but as a general 
rule, all fruits succeed best in their native locality. 

Peach trees in transplanting are set twenty feet apart 
each way, which gives one hundred and eight trees to 
the acre. If shortened in yearly, they may be set fifteen 
feet apart, which will give one hundred and ninety-three 
trees to an acre; in gardens fifteen feet is generally the 
best distance. 

Peaches are so much alike in general character — the 
difference in outline, color, flavor, and texture being less 
than with other plants — -that it is necessary in order to 
determine the name of a variety to resort to other 
methods of distinction. 

The two most obvious distinctions or divisions are into 
freestones and clingstones; or, as we call them, soft and 
36 



562 



GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 



plum peaches; the flesh of the former parting freely 
from the stone, and being of a melting consistency; and 
that of the latter named sorts adhering to the stone, and 
being of a firmer texture. The English give to these 
divisions the names of " inciters " and " pavies." 

Both these grand divisions are subdivided into classes 
according to the color of the flesh, viz.: Those with light 
colored and those with deep yellow flesh. These classes 
are again divided into three sections. At the base of the 
leaf of some varieties will be found small glands, which 
are either round and regular, or oblong and irregular, or 

kidney - shaped; while 
others have no glands, but 
are more deeply cut or 
/ serrated like the teeth of 
a saw. 




^T^Oi/ / \ W y / \ W Hence the three sec- 

ml \W 6 \ mr ^ tions, viz.: 1. Leaves ser- 

rated, without glands (a, 
Figure 158); 2. Leaves 
with small, round, or glo- 
bose glands (6, Figure 
158); 3. Loaves with large, irregular, reniform or kidney- 
shaped glands (r, Figure 158). 

From the blossom another characteristic is derived, 
giving us two sub-sections — the first embracing largo 
flowers, red in the center, and pale at the margin; the 
second, small flowers, tinged with dark red at the margin. 
Most native peaches in this vicinity have large flowers, 
but the great mass of the finer varieties have small 
flowers. 

Varieties, — The following varieties have been tried and 
are found among the most desirable. They are classed 
pretty much in the order of ripening. All named are good 
bearers. 

Alexander. — A prolific peach of bright color; large 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 503 

flowers; fruit medium size, red skin, white flesh and firm. 
Ripens May to June. Semi-cling. 

Angel. — Originated in Florida and highly prized in 
that {State. Fruit above average, round ; whitish-red skin; 
greenish white flesh; best quality in flavor, and early. 
Freestone. 

Rivers. — Flowers from March Dth to 30th; flowers 
large; fruit above medium; skin white, tinged with red; 
flesh white. Fruit ripens from middle of June to the tirst 
of July. Freestone. 

Hale. — Glands globose; fruit medium, nearly round; 
skin mottled red; cheek dark red; flesh white, melting, 
juicy, and high flavored; flowers large. Tree vigorous, 
healthy, and an abundant bearer, ripening ten days or two 
weeks before any other good variety. Free. {Thomas.) 

Tillottson. — Leaves deeply serrated, without glands; 
fruit medium, round; skin nearly covered with red 
ground; color pale yellowish-white, dotted with red, the 
cheek being quite dark; flesh white, red at the stone, to 
which it adheres slightly, although a freestone; melting, 
rich, and juicy, Avith a high flavor. Ripens from the 15th 
to the 20th of June. Free. 

Early York. — Leaves serrated, glandless; flowers 
large; fruit medium, roundish oval; suture slight; skin 
thickly dotted with pale red on a greenish- white ground, 
dark red in the sun; flesh greenish-white, tender, melting 
full of rich, slightly acid juice. Ripens Juue 20th. Free. 

GEORGE IV. — Glands globose; flowers small; fruit 
Large, round, with broad suture; skin white, dotted with 
red, cheek rich dark red; flesh pale, melting, very juicy, 
with rich, luscious flavor; stone small. Ripens July 10th. 
Free. 

Grosse Mignonne. — Glands globose; flowers large; 
fruit large, roundish, apex depressed; suture distinct; 



564 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

skin dull white, mottled with red, and with a purplish-red 
cheek; flesh red at the stone, melting, juicy, with a rich 
vinous flavor; stone small and very rough; perhaps the 
best freestone peach in cultivation. Ripens July 10th. 
Free. 

Crawford's Early. — Glands globose; flowers small; 
fruit yellowish-white, with a fine red cheek; flesh yellow, 
melting, sweet and excellent, Ripens middle of July. 
Free. 

Columbia. — Originated in Georgia; flowers large; fruit 
large, round; skin rough; flesh yellow and excellent 
flavor, liipens in July. Freestone. 

Elberta. — This peach also originated in Georgia, and 
is a prolific bearer. The flowers are large; fruit round, 
compressed; skin yellowish-red ; flesh yellow and of tine 
quality. Ripens from July 10th to August 6th. Freestone. 

Foster. — An excellent peach for family use. Flowers 
small; fruit fine grained and juicy, with delightful flavor; 
skin yellowish-red; flesh yellow. Ripens in the latter part 
of July. Freestone. 

Stump. — Flowers small; fruit round oval; skin light 
red; flesh white, firm and juicy; of best quality. Ripens 
about the middle of July. Freestone. 

Triumph. — This peach ripens about the time that the 
Alexander comes to maturity, and it is a favorite among 
orchardists for a shipping variety. The flavor is slightly 
acid, juicy and pleasant; skin yellow with a crimson 
blush; flesh yellow; medium size. Freestone when fully 
ripe. 

Oldmixon' Cling. — Glands globose; flowers small; 
fruit large, roundish oval; suture at the top; &,kin yellow- 
ish-white, dotted with red; cheek red; flesh light, melting, 
juicy and rich, with a high, luscious flavor. Ripens last 
of Julv and earlv in August. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 565 

Late Rareripe. — Glands globose; flowers small; fruit 
large, roundish oval; skin downy; color, grayish-white, 
marbled with red in the sun; flesh pale, juicy, melting, 
and of a rich, luscious flavor. Ripens last of July. 

Late Admirable. — Glands globose; flowers small; 
fruit large, roundish oval; suture distinct; apex swollen, 
acute; skin pale yellowish-green, with a pale red cheek, 
marbled with dark red; flesh pale, melting, and fine 
flavored. Ripens August 10th to 15th. Free. A superb 
peach. 

Crawford's Late. — Glands globose; flowers small; 
very large, roundish; suture shallow, but distinct; skin 
yellow, with dark-red cheek; flesh deep yellow, red at the 
stone, juicy, and melting, with rich, vinous flavor. Ripens 
early in August. Free. 

Lemon Cling. — Glands reniform; flowers small; leaves 
long; fruit large, oblong, narrowed at the top, with a 
swollen, projecting point; skin dark yellow, reddened in 
the sun; flesh fine yellow, red at the stone, flavor rich and 
vinous. Ripens August 10th. 

President. — Glands globose; large, roundish oval; 
suture shallow; skin downy, pale yellowish-green, with a 
dull-red cheek; flesh pale, but deep red at the stone, very 
juicy, melting and high flavored; stone very rough. Ripens 
August 15th. Free. 

Tippecanoe. — Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit 
very large, nearly round, with a point; skin yellow, with 
a fine red cheek; flesh yellow, juicy, with a fine vinous 
flavor. Ripens August 20th. Cling. 

Chinese Cling. — Leaves large and very dark green; 
fruit very large, sometimes weighing one pound; color 
creamy yellow, with a pale red cheek in the sun; flesh pale 
yellow, coarse, but of good vinous flavor, juicy enough, 
but has a little too much prussic acid flavor. Tree a very 
vigorous grower; flowers large. Ripens August 10th. 



FKUITiS VARIETIES AXD CULTUKE. 567 

Eaton's Golden. — A premium peach from North 
Carolina; flowers large; fruit large, and resembles Craw- 
ford's Late in appearance; color bright yellow, marbled 
with bright red, dark on the sunn}- side. The best late 
cling we have }^et seen. Kipens October 10th. 

Baldwin's Late. — Fruit large and round, with a 
swollen point; skin greenish-white, with a pale red cheek; 
flesh firm, juicy and melting, and good flavored. Ripe 
October 20th, and will keep for several weeks in the 
house. Free. 

Peento. — Fruit medium size, flat; white skin and flesh; 
freestone; good quality. Kipens early. Tree vigorous 
grower and very prolific. This peach thrives well in 
Florida, and is popular, particularly in the central and 
southern portions of the State. It also does well in South 
Louisiana. 

Everbearing Peach. — " This is one of the most re- 
markable peaches, as it combines many desirable quali- 
ties which make it of great value for family use. 

" 1. Its long continued bearing period. The first ripen- 
ing begins about July 1st, and successive crops are pro- 
duced until the beginning of September. Fruit in all 
stages of development — ripe and half grown — may be 
seen upon the tree at the same time. 

" 2. As the tree blossoms during a long period, a com- 
plete failure of fruit has, therefore, never happened since 
the original tree first began to bear, eight years ago. 

" 3. The fruit is creamy white, mottled and striped with 
light purple and with pink veins; oblong in shape, and 
tapering to the apex; flesh white, with red veins near the 
skin; very juicy, vinous, and of excellent flavor; quality 
very good to best. Freestone of the Indian type. 

" The first ripening averages three and a half inches 
long by three inches broad. The size of the second and 
following crops diminishes gradually, until that of the 



568 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



last ripening is about two inches in diameter. A supply 
of fruit may, therefore, be secured from the same tree for 
nearly three months in succession. 

" We do not recommend the Everbearing Teach for 
commercial orchards, but for family use, or small gar- 
dens, where there is room for only a few trees, its value 
is unquestionable. We offer it with confidence, as we 
have known the original tree for the past three years, and 




Fig. 226— Bidwell Early Peach. (Div. Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agri.) 

gathered the fruit in its various stages of development." 
(Bcrekman.s.) 

The following additional varieties are popular in some 
sections of the South: 



Amelia, 
Bidwell Late, 
Bidwell Early, 
Beer's Smock, 
Kerr (Jessie), 



General Lee, 
Mountain Rose, 
Onderdonk, 
Sneed, 
St. John, 



Waldo. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



569 



Peaches suitable for Middle Virginia, West North Caro- 
lina, North South Carolina, North Georgia, Northeast 
Alabama, and Middle Tennessee: 



Alexander, 

Beer's Smock, 

Early Crawford, 

Elberta, 

Foster, 

( icorge IV., 

Grosse Mignonne, 

Hale, 



Late Admirable, 
Late ( 'raw ford, 
Late Rareripe, 
Mountain Rose, 
Oldmixon Cling, 
I fivers, 
Sneed, 
Stump, 



St. John, 



Peaches suitable for Eastern Virginia, Eastern North 
Carolina, the southern half of South Carolina, the south- 
ern half of Georgia, all of Alabama except the north- 
eastern portions, Mississippi, Southeast Arkansas, North 
Louisiana, and Eastern Texas: 



Alexander, 
Amelia, 
Chinese Cling, 
Columbia, 
Early Crawford, 
Early York, 
Elberta, 
Everbearing, 
Hale, 



Kerr (Jessie), 
Late Crawford, 
General Lee, 
Lemon Cling, 
Mountain Rose, 
Oldmixon Cling, 
Sneed, 

St. John (Yellow), 
Tillottson. 



Peaches suitable for Southern Louisiana and Florida: 
Angel, Early Cream, 



Bidwell Early, 
Bidwell Late, 
Cabler Indian, 
Countess, 
Dorothy N., 



Ferdinand, 
Florida Crawford, 
General Lee, 
Gibbons, 
Honey, 



570 GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Imperial, Sneed, 

Jewel, Suber, 

Maggie, Taber, 

Onderdonk, Thurber, 

Pallas, Victoria, 

Peento, Waldo. 

Marketing. — Earty peaches are shipped in baskets 
packed in crates. When the fruit becomes more plenti- 
ful, however, well ventilated barrels may be used. Equal 
care must be exercised in assorting this fruit and packing 
separately the same sizes and grades as is cautioned in 
shipping oranges. Too great emphasis cannot be placed 
on this important point. Take care in handling the 
peach, so as not to injure the " bloom" on the fruit. 

PEAR. — ( Pyrus communis.) 

The Pear is often found growing wild in hedges in 
various parts of Europe, China and Western Asia. It is a 
thorny tree, with upright branches, tending to the pyra- 
midal form. The wild fruit is exceedingly harsh and 
astringent; but no fruit whatever is more delicious, 
sugary, and melting than its best improved varieties. 
The pear was early brought into cultivation; there were 
thirty-two varieties in Pliny's time, yet they were " but a 
heavy fruit, unless boiled or baked,"' and it was not before 
the seventeenth century that it became really worthy of 
culture for the dessert. Indeed, the majority of the best 
varieties have originated within the last century. The 
pear, under favorable circumstances, is a long-lived tree. 
The Endicott pear tree, still living in Danvers, Massa- 
chusetts, was planted by (Jovernor Endicott in 1628, or 
eight years after the landing of the Pilgrims. 

M. Bosc mentions trees in Europe which are known to 
be four hundred years old. Even in this State trees that 
were in full bearing forty years ago are still healthy, 
vigorous, and productive. It will endure in suitable soils 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 571 

greater extremes of heat than the apple, succeeding well 
in latitudes too warm for the latter fruit to flourish. It is 
better adapted to southern climates than the apple, while 
in cold climates it succeeds as well. 

The pear is the most delicious of fruits for the dessert ; 
and, in this latitude, by choosing proper varieties, we are 
able to have them ten or eleven months of the year. The 
finer kinds often sell in the cities for one or two dollars 
per dozen. It is excellent for baking, preserves and mar- 
malade. It may be dried like the apple and peach, and, 
with or without sugar, will keep for years. Perry is made 
from the juice, as cider from the apple. The wood is tine- 
grained and compact, and, dyed black, is used in place of 
ebony. 

Dessert pears should have a sugary, aromatic juice, and 
a soft, melting, subliquid texture. Some few of a crisp, 
firm, or breaking consistency are very good. Pears for 
stewing or baking should be large, firm-fleshed, and 
moderately juicy. The harsh, austere kinds are thought 
best for perry. 

Gathering and Preserving the Fruit. — Most varieties of 
the pear are much better if picked from the tree before 
fully ripe, and ripened in the house. Indeed, some few 
kinds, like the Ileatlwote, Bartlett and Van Assche, will 
ripen well if gathered at any time after they are half 
grown. When a few begin to turn yellow and ripen on 
the tree, then gather the whole crop. 

Many of the most delicious varieties, if allowed to 
ripen on the tree, become dry, insipid, and only second 
or third rate. They will also ripen more gradually, last 
longer, and be less liable to loss or injury, if ripened in 
the house. It is said, however, a few varieties do best to 
ripen on the tree. When gathered, some few kinds ripen 
more perfectly by exposing them to the light and air. 
Most of them do best, however, in kegs or small boxes, or 



572 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

on the shelves of a cool, dark fruit-room, each one sepa- 
rately enveloped in paper or loose cotton. This is not 
necessary with the summer varieties. Pears, like apples, 
must be gathered by hand, with the same precaution to 
prevent bruises, or they will soon decay. Winter pears 
should hang as long as may be upon the tree. A week or 
two before their proper time to ripen, bring them from 
the fruit- room into a warm apartment; this will much 
improve their flavor. 

Propagation and Culture. — Pears are propagated by 
budding or grafting on seedling pear stocks or on certain 
varieties of the quince. Pear suckers should never be 
employed for this purpose, for they seldom have good 
roots, and the trees are short-lived; a great deal of preju- 
dice exists against pear culture from this cause. Seed- 
lings raised from the thrifty-growing kinds that are found 
about the country are much more healthy than those 
raised from the improved varieties. 

Sow the seed thickly in autumn, in drills eighteen 
inches apart, or, better still, mix the seed with sifted sand 
in a box, and place it out doors during winter, and sow in 
the spring, when they begin to sprout, in good, rich 
earth; the latter mode saves the seed from being de- 
stroyed by ground mice. 

Ashes are an excellent application to the seed-bed; the 
soil should be moist, as much of the value of the stocks 
depends on vigorous and continued growth the first 
season. Take up the stocks in November or December, 
shorten the tap-root, and reset them in rows four feet 
apart, putting those together which are of about the same 
size. The best of them, if in a good, rich soil, will be fit 
to bud during the next summer, and nearly all the balance 
can be whip-grafted the ensuing spring. 

Many kinds of pears grow well on the quince, and come 
some vears earlier into bearing. We have found the com- 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 573 

moil quince to be equally as good as the Angers, when 
worked side by side with them. The fruit produced from 
trees worked on the quince is usually larger and better 
flavored than on the pear, and the trees can be set much 
nearer together. They come into bearing in two or three 
years, but are not as long-lived as when worked on the 
pear stock. In plantiug the trees on pear stocks they 
should be set twenty feet apart; but as these will be 
several years before they come into bearing, the spaces 
should be filled up with dwarf trees, growing on the 
quince stock, so as to have them, when planted, ten feet 
apart. Thus a plantation of sixteen trees, set in a square, 
on the pear stock, would require thirty-three on the 
quince to fill the intervals — making a square of seven 
trees on a side. This will prevent the attacks of the 
quince borer, and add to the longevity of the tree. 

The soil must be kept clean and well tilled; but it 
should not be deepty spaded within two feet of the trunks 
of the trees. No fruit tree will be healthy or bear well 
if the ground is deeply spaded near its stem. The pear 
likes a deep, strong loam, similar to that required by the 
apple. Iron is beneficial; hence the pear succeeds well in 
our red clay loam, if deeply dug and sufficiently manured. 
For pears on the quince stock, the soil should be deep and 
cool. From the analysis of the wood and bark of the 
pear tree, it is apparent that wood ashes ami superphos- 
phate of lime cannot but be very beneficial to the growth 
and fruitfulness of the pear. 

In pruning the pear, the object is to make it throw out 
branches within a foot of the ground, and to encourage 
its growth in its natural pyramidal shape. 

Not much pruning is required the first year; but any 
shoot that, by overgrowth, threatens to destroy the 
beauty of the tree should be pinched in at once. When 
the tree is transplanted, if it has been out of the ground 



^(4 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

for airy length of time it must be severely shortened in. 
If the tree has good roots, the top will soon be renewed. 
Severe pruning at this time is the only way to make the 
tree branch out near the ground, so as to shade the trunk 
and give a tine pyramidal shape. To secure this, plant 
maiden trees, or those one year old from the bud. When 
they have grown one year, cut back the branches in 
the winter; pinch in any shoots, during the summer, that 
would mar the s3 T inmetry of the tree, or remove them en- 
tirely, if superfluous. 

Head back the leader each year, to strengthen the side 
branches. The leader must be shortened more or less, 
according to its vigor. A little practice will enable any 
one of ordinary judgment to form his trees in the desired 
shape. Do not let the branches remain so close together 
that, when they come to bear, they will cause the fruit 
and foliage in the interior to suffer from want of air; keep 
the lower shoots the longest by pinching those above, 
when disposed to overgrow them. This makes a beautiful 
tree, ornamental even for a flower garden. 

A greater number of varieties of the pear are in cultiva- 
tion than of any other fruit. Of those that have fruited 
here, the following are the most desirable. The varieties 
do not always observe with us the order as laid down in 
the books. 

Madeline. — Fruit medium, obovate, tapering to the 
stem, which is long and slender, set on the side of a small 
swelling; skin smooth, yellowish-green; calyx small, in 
a shallow basin; flesh white, melting, juicy, sweet, and 
perfumed. Ripe from the 1st to the 15th of June. 

Doyenne d'Ete, or Summer Doyenne. — Fruit small, 
roundish, slightly turbinate; skin smooth, light yellow, 
shaded with bright red, sprinkled with small gray or 
russet dots; stalk rather short, thick, fleshy where in- 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



575 



serted in the fruit, in a very slight depression; calyx 
small, partly closed in a shallow, slightly corrugated 
basin; flesh white, melting, juicy, and sweet. The best 
very early pear; ripens with, and superior to, the Made- 
leine; in Georgia early in June, in New York last of July. 
Tree vigorous; an early and profuse bearer; leaves long, 
oval, pointed, and dark green; seeds dark. 

Bosc. — Fruit large, pyriform, somewhat uneven, taper- 
ing gradually to the stalk; skin smooth, dark yellow, 




Fig. 227 — Doyenne d'Ete. 

nearly covered with rich cinnamon russet; stalk varies 
sometimes, being largo and fleshy, as in the figure, or 
long, rather slender, and curved; flesh white, melting, 
buttery, abounding in rich, sugary, and delicious juice, 
slightly perfumed, Uipens — Georgia, in September and 
into October; New York, October and November. Tree 
healthy ami productive. 

Louise (Bonne de Jersey).— Fruit large, oblong, pyri- 
form ; skin smooth, glossy, pale green in the shade, brown- 



5?6 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



ish-red in the sun, sprinkled thickly with minute dots; 
stalk about an inch long, obliquely inserted without 
depression or with a fleshy base; calyx small, open, with 




Fig. 228— Bosc. 

rather long segments, in a shallow, uneven basin; flesh 
greenish-white, very juicy and melting, and excellent. 
Ripens — Georgia, August 10th, and through the month; 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 577 

New York, September and October. The tree is an up- 
right, vigorous grower, forming a fine pyramid. The fruit 
is much better on the quince than on the pear. 

Bloodgood. — Fruit medium, turbinate (at the South 




Fig. 229 — Louise (Bonne de Jersey). 

often oblate), generally thickening abruptly to the stalk; 
skin yellow, considerably russeted in dots and net-work 
patches; calyx large, open, in a slight depression; stalk 
obliquely inserted, about an inch long, dark brown, fleshy 
at its base; flesh yellowish-white, buttery, with a rich 

37 



578 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

musky aroma, melting and sweet; core small. Georgia, 
last of June; New York, last of July. Generally larger 
than in the figure. 

Manning's Elizabeth. — Growth of tree moderate; 
shoots reddish, dotted with brown; fruit rather small, 
regular oblate inclining to obovate, or Doyenne-shaped; 
skiu smooth, bright yellow, dotted with russet, with a 




Fig. 230— Bloodgood. 

bright red cheek ; stalk scarcely au inch long, often a little 
fleshy at its base, inserted in a shallow, regular cavity; 
calyx open, in a broad, shallow basin; flesh white, juicy, 
melting, with a sprightly saccharine flavor. Ripens — 
Georgia, July 10th; New York, middle and last of August. 
The best pear of its season; productive. 

Bartlett. — Fruit large, irregular, knobby, obtuse- 
pyriform, often much more oblong than in the figure; skin 
very thin, smooth, clear light yellow, with a slight blush 
in the sun, sprinkled with minute russet dots and with 



FEUITS VARIETIES AXD CULTURE. 579 

faint russet markings towards the stem; stalk about an 
inch long, stout, in a shallow cavity; calyx small, partly 
open, in a very shallow, slightly plaited basin; flesh white, 




Fig. 231— Bartlett. 



exceedingly fine-grained, melting; full of agreeable, 
vinous juice. ' Ripens — Georgia, through August; New 
York, September. Specimens that fall before they are 
fully gro ! wn, ripen nicely in the house. Sometimes too 



580 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



-Eno- 



from 



acid, but one of the most desirable sorts. Origin- 
land, 1770. Tree quite fruitful, and bears young. 

Brandywine. — Fruit above medium, varying 
ooiate-depressed-pyriform to elongated pyriform; skin 
yellowish-green, dotted and sprinkled with russet, with 
a bright red cheek; stalk fleshy where it joins the fruit; 




Fig. 232 — Brandywine. 

calyx open; basin shallow; flesh white, juicy, melting, 
sugarj^, and somewhat aromatic. Georgia, ripe the mid J 
die of July; New York, the last of August. Growth 
vigorous and upright; leaves small, deep glossy green; 
productive. 

White Doyenne. — The White Doyenne, or Yirgalieu, 
is one of the most esteemed pears. Fruit medium to large 
size, generally larger than the figure, varying from 
obovate-pyriform to oblate; skin clear pale yellow, regu- 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 581 

larly sprinkled with small dots, with a fine red cheek; 
stalk from one-half an inch to over an inch long, generally 
a little curved, and planted in a small, round cavity; calyx 
small, closed, in a shallow, generally smooth basin; flesh 
white, fine-grained, buttery, melting, with a rich, deli- 




lig. 233— White Doyenne. 

cious flavor. Ripens — Georgia, in August; New York, 
September to December. 

Henry the Fourth, or Ananas d'Ete. — Fruit varies 
from the size figured to small, roundish pyriform, irregu- 
lar, skin pale greenish-yellow, clouded with darker green, 
and dotted with gray specks; stalk about an inch long, 
twisted obliquely, planted on an irregular prominence, 
or under a swollen lip; calyx small, closed; basin shallow 



582 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



and abrupt; flesh white, exceedingly juicy aud meltings 
with a pleasant perfumed flavor; a dull fruit externally, 
but a nice dessert pear, bearing abundantly, and con- 
tinuing to ripen several weeks. Ripens — Georgia, from 
the 20th of Julj r into September; New York, September. 

Selleck. — Fruit varies from obovate to obtuse-pyri- 
forin, somewhat ribbed; skin fine, rich yellow, thickly 




Fig. 234 — Henry the Fourth. 



dotted and sprinkled with russet, full russet about the 
base of the stalk; stalk long and curved, fleshy at its inser- 
tion in a moderate cavity; calyx partly closed, in a small, 
uneven basin; flesh white, firm, juicy and melting, sugary, 
with a rich, aromatic flavor; keeps well without decay at 
the core; a very valuable sort. Ripens in Georgia, 20th 
of August; New York, in September. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 583 

Van Assche. — Tree vigorous and fruitful, with red- 
dish-brown shoots and plump buds; fruit medium, or 
large, turbinate, inclining to conical, in very large speci- 
mens oblate; skin light yellow, with numerous russet and 
red dots, with a bright red cheek; stalk an inch long, 




Fig. 235 — Selleck. 

rather stout, obliquely planted in a. slight depression; 
calyx partly closed, in a broad, deep, and wrinkled basin; 
flesh white, fine-grained, juicy, with a delicate blending 
of sweet and acid, and a rich, excellent flavor. Kipens— 
August in Georgia; October, in New York. Generally 
larger than the engraving. 

Duchkssk d'Angouleme. — Fruit very large, obovate, 
varying from oblong to oblate, with a knobby, uneven 
surface; skin dull greenrsh-yellow, dotted and spotted 



584 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




Fig. 236— Van Assche. 




Fig. 237— Seckel. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 585 

with russet; stalk about an inch long, quite stout, set with 
an inclination in a rather deep cavity; calyx closed, set in 
a narrow, somewhat knobby basin; flesh white, buttery, 
very juicy, with a rich, sugary flavor. Excellent for so 
large a pear. Brings the very highest prices in market. 
Ripens — Georgia, the latter half of August into Septem- 
ber; New York, in October. From France. 

Seckel. — Fruit small, generally obovate; skin at first 
brownish-green, at last becoming yellowish-brown, with a 
bright red, russet cheek; stalk half to three-fourths of an 
inch long, slightly curved, set in a slight depression; calyx 
small, open, in a very shallow basin; flesh whitish, but- , 
tery, very fine-grained and melting, filled with rich, 
sugary, aromatic juice. Ripens — Georgia, the last half 
of August and into September; New York, September and 
October. Tree of slow growth, but remarkably healthy 
and productive. Origin — Philadelphia. This is by many 
considered, and perhaps juslly, the very best variety of 
pear. 

Clairgeau. — Fruit large, pyriform, with unequal 
sides; skin warm yellow, inclining to fawn, thickly sprink- 
led with large, yellow dots, with russet tracings and spots, 
shaded with orange and crimson; stalk short and stout, 
often fleshy, and inserted by a lip at an inclination, or in 
an uneven cavity; calyx open, with stiff segments; flesh 
yellowish, buttery, very melting and juicy, with a sugary, 
vinous flavor. Ripens — Georgia, September to October 
10th; New York, October to January. A beautiful fruit, 
often so much larger and broader than the cut, that it 
could not be figured on this page. Tree vigorous, and an 
early and profuse bearer. 

Lucrative. — Fruit medium, obovate to obscure pyri- 
form; skin pale yellowish-green, with dots and traces of 
russet; stem varying from short, stout, and fleshy, to more 



586 



GAKDEKIKG FOR THE SOUTH. 



than an inch long, often obliquel}' inserted in a slight 
cavity; calyx open, in a medium basin; flesh fine-grained, 
melting, full of rich, sugary, and delicious juice. Ripens — 
Georgia, in August; New York, last of September. A 




Fig. 238— Clairgeau. 

Flemish variety. Tree of moderate growth, very fruitful, 
and bears young; one of the very best. 

Archangel. — Fruit above medium size, obovate-pyri- 
form; skin smooth, shining, greenish-yellow, sprinkled 
with russet dots; stalk an inch long, inclined, fleshy at 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



587 



its insertion, and surrounded by russet; calyx small and 
closed; basin small and uneven; flesh yellowish- white, 
tender and melting, abundant in sugary juice, with an 
agreeable perfume; an excellent fruit. Tree healthy, 
vigorous and fruitful. Ripe — Georgia, last of August; 
New York, October. 

Sterling. — Fruit medium, and varying from oblate to 
obovate, or obscure pyriform; skin yellow, with a few 
russet patches, and a mottled crimson cheek; stalk 
medium, inserted in a slightly plaited cavity; calyx small, 




Fig. 239— Sterling. 

open, iu a medium basin; flesh somewhat coarse, juicy, 
melting, with a sugary, brisk flavor. Ripens — Georgia, 
July 15th; New York, the last of August. Keeps a long- 
time after gathering, and is an excellent fruit to send to a 
distant market. Very desirable. Tree vigorous and up- 



588 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

right, with yellowish-brown wood. An early and pro- 
ductive bearer. 

Passe Colmar. — Fruit large, varying from obovate to 
obtuse-pyriform; skin rather thick, yellowish-green, turn- 
ing yellow when mature, a good deal russeted about the 
eye and at the base of the stalk; stalk rather long, often 
fleshy at its base, inserted in an uneven cavity; calyx 
open/in a slight, regular basin; flesh yellowish, fine, melt- 
ing and juicy, with a sweet, rich, aromatic flavor. A 
rapid grower and profuse bearer, but if the fruit is not 
well thinned, it will be small and astringent. Georgia, 
October and November; New York, December. 

Glout Morceau. — Fruit large, varying in form from 
obovate to obtuse-pyriform, and often depressed some j 
what; skin pale greenish-yellow, marked with small dots, 
russeted about the stem, with a brownish cheek on the 
more exposed fruits; stem long, slender, in a slight cavity; 
calyx mostly open, in a rather deep basin; flesh white, 
fine-grained, very melting, juicy, sugary, and perfumed. 
A fine, pyramidal, healthy grower, and quite fruitful. 
Georgia, October and November; New York, December. 

Josephine de Malines. — Fruit medium, truncate, ob- 
conic; skin yellowish, somewhat russeted, especially 
about the base and crown, and sprinkled with russet dots; 
stalk long, stout, curved, inserted in a moderate, russet- 
lined cavity; calyx small, open, with caducous segments, 
in a slight basin; flesh greenish-white, buttery, very juicy, 
sugary, melting and perfumed. An excellent keeper. 
Georgia, October to January, and has been kept until 
March ; New York, November, and through the winter. 
Tree productive and vigorous. 

Belle Epine Dumas (Duchess de Bordeaux). — Fruit 
medium or large, long-pyriform; skin green, becoming 
greenish-yellow as it ripens, with small brown dots, and 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 589 

at the South is generally somewhat marked with russet 
about the base and stem; stalk long, rather stout, curved 
a little, swollen at the base, inserted in a slight depres- 
sion; calyx small, partly closed, in a shallow, regular 
basin; flesh white, fine, melting, juicy, rich, sugary, and 




Fig. 240 — Josephine de Malines. 



perfumed; core medium, with large, long, pointed seeds. 
Georgia, October; New York, November and December. 
Parsonage. — Fruit medium or large, obovate, in- 
clining to obtuse-pyriform; skin warm yellow, rough, 
often shaded with dull crimson, netted and thickly dotted 
with russet; stalk short, stout, curved, fleshy at its inser- 
tion; calyx open, with short, stiff segments, in a russeted, 
shallow basin; flesh white, somewhat coarse, granular. 



590 GAKDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH. 

.sugary, and refreshing. In Georgia it has kept until 
November. Tree fruitful and healthy. 

Columbia. — Fruit large, oblong-obovate, or pyriform, 
often simply obovate, broadest in the middle; skin 
smooth, pale green, turning yellowish when ripe, with a 




Fig. 241— Columbia. 

soft brown cheek, dotted with russet, with a little russet 
also about the stalk and calyx; stalk about an inch long, 
rather stout, slightly curved; calyx small, partly closed, 
in a shallow basin; flesh white, fine-grained, melting and 
abundant in rich, sugary juice. Ripens in Georgia from 
the loth of August to the last of September, and is not 



FRUITS VARIETIES AXD CULTURE. 



591 



excelled by any other pear; in New York, November, and 
is said to be variable there, but generally tine. 

St. Germain (Pound). — Fruit large, irregular, oval- 
pyriform, tapering to the eye and stalk; skin yellowish- 
green, a good deal covered with russet, with a brown 
cheek; stem stout, swollen at its insertion, generally 
planted obliquely by the side of a small, tleshy swelling; 
calyx small, open, in a very shallow basin ; flesh yellowish- 




Fig. 242 — St. Germain. 

white, a little gritty, melting, juicy, rich and sugary. 
Georgia, October and November; New York, November 
and December. This is one of the most desirable pears 
grown at the South. Tree healthy and productive, and 
the smallest fruits alwavs of excellent flavor. 



)92 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 




Fig. 244— Lawrence. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 593 

Winter Nelis. — Fruit medium to small, varying from 
oblate to roundish obovate; skin yellowish-green, but 
generally a good deal covered with russet; stalk an inch 
long, curved, and planted in a narrow cavity; calyx open, 
in a shallow basin, with stiff, short segments; flesh pale 
yellowish-white, fine-grained, buttery and melting, 




Fig. 245 -Easter Beurre. 

abounding in rich, sugary, aromatic juice. Ripens — 
Georgia, in October; New York, December. 

Lawrence. — Fruit large, obovate, obscurely pyriform; 
stalk rather short, inclined, inserted by a lip or in a slight, 
regular depression; cavity generally partly closed, in a 
broad, shallow basin; skin fine lemon yellow, uneven, 
sprinkled thickly with small dots; flesh white, a little 
granular, buttery, with a very rich, sugary, aromatic 
38 



594 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



flavor. Georgia — September 20th to October 20th; New 
York, November to January. Tree of moderate growth, 
very healthy; an early and abundant bearer. Far the 
most desirable pear of its season. 




Fig. 246— LeConte Pear (after S. H. Runiph). 

Easter Beurre — Fruit large, obovate or obtuse-pyri- 
form; skin yellowish-green, sprinkled with large russet 
dots, and marbled somewhat with greenish-russet; stalk 
rather stout, in abrupt cavity; calyx usually small, 
closed, in a plaited basin; flesh white, fine-grained, but- 



FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTUEE. 595 

tery, juicy, and sweet. Georgia, November to March; 
New York, January to May. Succeeds best on quince. 

JAMINETTB (Josephine). — Fruit large, varying in form 
from obovate, narrowing to the stalk, to oblate; skin 
green, turning to pale yellowish-green when ripe, dotted 
with brown, and marked with russet; stalk rather short, 




Fig 247— Kieffer Pear (after S. H. Humph) 

obliquely planted in a slight depression (in obovate speci- 
mens without depression), and surrounded with russet; 
calyx small, open, in a slight basin; flesh white, a little 
gritty at the core, juicy, buttery, and sweet. A good 
fruit, but must be eaten as it begins to soften, or will be 
found decayed at the core. Georgia, October. 

LeCoxte. — This is a vigorous grower, and well 
adapted to South Georgia, Florida and the coasts of 



596 GAEDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

Alabama, Louisiana and Texas. The fruit is very large; 
skin smooth and light yellow. The tree is prolific, and 
ripens its fruit in July. 

Kieffer. — This is one of the best pears for cooking 
purposes. It is said to be a seedling of the LeConte or 




Fig. 248 — Superfine. 

Chinese sand pear. It is a very popular fruit in South 
Georgia and Florida. A productive and valuable late 
pear. To secure the best results with this pear it should 
be grafted on a LeConte or Japan pear stock. 

The Georgia Horticultural Society in the proceedings 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 597 

for 189G recommends the following grouping of the varie- 
ties of pears for market in the order of maturity: 

Ox Quince Stock. — Giffard, Archangel, Superfine, 
Howell, Duchesse d'Angouleme, Seckel, Ruerre d' Anjou. 




Fig. 249— Anjou. 

Superfine. — This pear originated in Frame. The 
fruit is round pyriform, of a yellow-crimson russet color, 
and of a butter-melting texture; the flavor is vinous. 
The fruit is medium quality. 

Anjou. — Obtuse pyriform shape; rather above medium 
in size; color greenish-crimson; quality good, and tex- 



598 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 

ture melting, with a perfumed vinous flavor. The fruit 
ripens at a medium date. 

Howell. — This pear originated in Connecticut. The 
fruit is a yellowish-red color; vinous, juicy flavor, and it 
is a good dessert and market variety. 




Fig. 250— Howell. 

Garber. — This is a seedling of the Chinese sand pear, 
and is very popular in many portions of the South. It 
ripens between the dates in which the LeConte and 
Kieffer pears mature, and therefore in those orchards 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



599 



where the three varieties are found, a succession of fruit 
is obtained. The tree bears young and abundantly. 

On Standard. — Doyenne d'Ete, Glapp's Favorite, 
Bartlett, Lucrative, LeConte, Flemish, Clairgeau, Law- 
rence, Kieffer, Easter, and Winter Nelis. 

Oriental Type. — .Mikado, Garber, Mine. Von Siebold. 

The Smith pear is highly endorsed by the Florida 
Horticultural Society as equal to the LeConte in its vigor 
and productiveness, and having the advantage, perhaps, 
in earliness and quality. 

Pears suitable for Middle Virginia, Western North 
Carolina, North South Carolina, North Georgia, North- 
east Alabama, Middle Tennessee: 

Angouleme, Duchess de, Lawrence, 



Anjou, 

Bartlett, 

Bloodgood, 

Bosc, 

Brandywine, 

Clairgeau, 

Columbia, 

Easter Beurre, 

Howell, 

Kieffer, 



Giffard, 

Garber, 

Louise Bonne de Jersey, 

Lucrative, 

Madeleine, 

Malines, Josephine de, 

Seckel, 

Summer Doyenne, 

Superfine, 

White Doyenne, 



Winter Nelis. 



Pears suitable for Eastern Virginia, Eastern North 
Carolina, southern half of South Carolina, southern half 
of Georgia, all of Alabama except the northeastern por- 
tions, Mississippi, Southern Arkansas, North Louisiana, 
and Eastern Texas: 

Angouleme, Duchess de, Lawrence, 
Garber, LeConte, 

Kieffer, Seckel. 



600 GARDENING FOR. THE SOUTH. 

Pears suitable for Southern Louisiana and Florida: 

Garber, LeConte, 

Kieffer, Smith. 

Marketing. — The fruit must be gathered before fully 
ripe, because otherwise it will be too mellow for shipping 
properly. It will ripen sufficiently in transit. Pack in 
the same manner recommended for apples, in half-bushel 
crates, or, if the crop is a large one, in barrels. Face up 
as directed for appl 

PERSIMMON.— ( Diospyros.) 

American Persimmon or Date Plum (D. Virgin iana, 
L.). — This tree is very common in its wild condition 
throughout the South, and, not until within recent years, 
has any systematic effort been {jut forth to improve the 
fruit by cultivation. 

In its wild condition the fruit of the persimmon varies 
greatly in size and flavor. Some are large and more or 
less pleasant to the taste, while others are quite small 
and varying also in the degre of palatableness. Within 
recent years a number of improved varieties have been 
developed by experimenters, until now we have more 
than a dozen excellent forms which produce fruit of 
superior quality. The following are some of the best, 
described by the Pomological Division of the United 
States Department of Agriculture and the Indiana Ex- 
periment Station : 

Daniel Boone. — The fruit is roundish oblate; yellow, 
with a dull blush in the sun. Skin rather tough and 
seeds numerous; quality good, though not so rich as some 
other varieties. Season, October and November. Tree 
handsome, productive, and a vigorous grower, with very 
large, thick leaves. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



601 



Early Bearing. — This was introduced by James Lit- 
tle, Cartersburg, Hendricks county, Indiana. Fruit, 
round-ovate; medium to large; dull yellow and of good 
quality. Ripens earlier than Daniel Boone, and, though 
smaller, is a more desirable variety. The tree is a good 
grower, early bearer, and very productive. 




Fig. 251 — Daniel Boone. Reduced. Indiana Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station Bulletin 60. 

Early Golden. — Oblong, medium to large, rich yel- 
low color, very sweet, and of excellent quality; skin thick 
and seeds few in number. Ripens in September without 
frost. Twigs and under side of leaves covered with 
whitish down. Tree productive and handsome. Intro- 
duced from Illinois. 



602 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



Golden Gem. — Roundish or slightly oblong; medium 
to large in size; color dark red orange to red; seeds few; 
flesh soft, very sweet and rich; free from astringency, 
even if picked before fully ripe. Commences to ripen 
about the last of August and continues till October. This 
variety was brought to notice by Mr. Logan Martin, of 




Fig. 252— Early Bearing. Reduced. Indiana Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station Bulletin 60. 

Borden, Indiana, who found the original tree on his farm 
thirty-five years ago. He has propagated from this by 
budding, and now has more than three hundred trees, 
including top-worked wild and young trees growing in 
the nursery. He reports that the persimmon pays him 
better than any other fruit. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



603 



Hicks (synonym Superior). — Originated by E. II. True- 
blood, Indiana. A choice native variety, the trees of 
which have been propagated and their fruit marketed 
locally for many years. Size medium; color dull, grayish 
red; seeds somewhat numerous, of medium size; flavor 
sweet and rich, free from astringency when fully ripe; 




Fig. 253— Golden Gem. Reduced. Indiana Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station Bulletin 60. 

very good. Specimens of the fruit of this variety, dried 
in the shade without sugar, were found to be of excellenl 
quality, and almost equal to imported dates. Mr. I licks 
reports that the fruit begins ripening early and continues 
for a period of six weeks, and that the tree is very pro- 
ductive. The orignal tree has not failed to fruit annually 
for the past twenty-five years. 



604 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Kemper. — We have not ascertained the history of this 
variety, but learned from a report of the Division of 
Pomology, United States Department of Agriculture, 
that it was originated in Tennessee, and is one of the 
best varieties thus far named and introduced. 

Kansas. — This was introduced from Missouri. The 
fruit is roundish, slightly oblate; rather large; splashed 
with red on yellow ground ; flesh tender, rich, and highly 
flavored. Season, September. The tree is productive 
and is very handsome in general appearance. 

Marion. — Originated by Samuel Miller, Missouri. This 
native persimmon is a large, handsome fruit, with few 
seeds, ripening in October. The original tree was found 
growing near Fulton, Missouri, on land owned by J. H. 
Marion, and is said to have larger leaves and blossoms 
than the common persimmon. 

Shoto. — This variety was introduced by A. C. Cham- 
bers, Danville, Hendricks county, Indiana. The fruit is 
oblong-ovate, slightly conical; large to very large; color 
dull yellow, with blush in the sun; rather tough skin and 
few seeds; quality very good. Season, October. Tree an 
early bearer, productive, and a vigorous grower. The 
original tree began bearing at three years of age. 

Smeech. — Fruit, roundish-oblate; medium size; dull 
yellow, with red splashes; superior quality, being very 
rich and sweet. Tree a good grower and productive. In- 
troduced from Pennsylvania. 

Propagation. — The persimmon grows readily from seed, 
but there is no certainty that fruit, even equal to that 
produced by the original tree, will be obtained. It is 
therefore best to graft on the common wild stock in early 
spring. The splice or cleft method of grafting can be 
used with success. The stock should be healthy and from 
one to two inches in diameter. For a description of these 



FBUITS VAE1ETIES AND CULTUEE. 



605 



methods of grafting the reader is referred to the chapter 
devoted to this subject. The trees should be planted in 
the orchard with ample space to allow for future growth 
and expansion. Twenty to thirty feet will not be too 
much space between the trees and between the rows. 



















'iA/SiSss^ 














'' 






: -% 


BE> is 




* iA 


■ 




^^^k$*- "~~ 


M&2 

pep «*& 





Fig. 254— Shoto. Reduced. Indiana Agricultural Experiment 
Station Bulletin 60. 

Frequent cultivation by plowing and harrowing will im- 
prove the condition and growth of the trees. 

Japan Persimmon (D. kali). — This species of the per- 
simmon was introduced into the United States a number 
of years ago from Japan, and it is well known among all 
horticulturists throughout the country. The trees grow 
to a remarkable degree of perfection in the South, and 



<;<><; 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



the fruit is larger and superior in quality to the Ameri- 
can species. 

In its propagation and cultivation the same methods 
are used as practiced with the American persimmon. 
When grafted on the native plant the Japan persimmon 




Fig. 255— Costata Persimmon. Div. Pomology, V. S. Dept. Agri. 



becomes peculiarly suited to the South, and it is doubtful 
whether any other section of the country can produce the 
fruit of equal perfection in quality. There are few ene- 
mies known to attack it, and it is a very prolific and 
vigorous tree. The character of the fruit varies consider- 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



607 



ably with the varieties. Some produce dark flesh, while 
others give a lighter shade in color. These two classes 
also differ in taste. The dark flesh kinds may be eaten 
with relish before they are quite ripe, and there is not 
the unpleasant astringent taste detected in the light 
flesh colored kinds before fully ripe. Of course all fruit 
of the persimmon becomes much improved when com- 
pletely matured. The dark flesh kinds also give more 
seeds that the light flesh varieties. Some of the latter 
are termed seedless. 




Fig. 2.56— Hyakume Persimmon. Div. Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agri. 

The best varieties of the Japan persimmon are as fol- 
lows : 

Costata. — Size above medium, salmon red, round 
conical pointed, quality fair, ripens late. The flesh is 
light yellow, with very few seeds. The fruit will keep a 
long time after pulled from the tree. Tree vigorous and 
rather ornamental with broad leaves. 

Hachiya. — Very large, weighing as much as ten 
ounces; obovate pointed, dark red with deep yellow flesh, 
few seeds and an astringent taste until fully ripe. Fruit 
ripens early; good grower, but rather shy bearer. 

Hyakume.— Rather large, but not the size of the last; 



608 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



round obovate, orange red, quality good and ripens near 
the middle of the season. The flesh is yellow in color, 
and the fruit is a good market variety. 




Fig. 257 — Okame. 

Okame. — Large fruit, dark red on the skin and round 
oblate. Good quality and medium early in ripening. This 
is not a favorite market variety, because of the difficulty 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



G09 



in getting all of the fruit to ripen uniformly, but it is 
highly prized for home use because of the long season, 
the beauty and fine quality of the fruit. It is called one 
of the seedless varieties. 

Tanenashi. — This is one of the best in flavor of all 
the Japan persimmons. The fruit is large, round conical 




Fig. 258— Yeddo-ichi Persimmon. 

pointed, brown in color, and the flesh an orange yellow. 
This is an excellent market variety. 

Yeddo-ichi. — This is also an excellent fruit in quality; 
medium size, round oblate, dark red, flesh mahogany 
brown, with dark spots. The tree is upright and a pro- 
lific bearer. 

Yemon. — With some authorities this fruit stands third 

39 



610 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

in the degree of excellency. The astringency in this fruit 
disappears as it begins to soften; it is a large fruit, round 
conical pointed, skin salmon red and flesh deep red. The 
tree is vigorous and productive. 

Zengi. — One of the earliest to ripen, and is edible from 
the middle of September until the latter part of October. 
The flesh is dark brown and the quality is good. This is 
one of the seedy varieties. 




Fig. 259 — Zengi Persimmon. 

Marketing. — The persimmon should not be marketed 
until the astringency has been destroyed by the fruit be- 
ing fully ripe. Many of the varieties can be picked be- 
fore entirely ripened and housed in a well-ventilated 
place until the ripening is completed, when they may be 
packed in baskets used for strawberries. When the fruit 
is left on the trees until after frost strikes it the keeping 
qualities are greatly reduced, but if it is gathered before 
frost and just before fully ripe the fruit will generally 
keep for a month. A little experience will determine this 
point with accuracy. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AM) CULTURE. 611 

PINEAPPLES. — ( Ananassa sativa.) 

There are at least twenty varieties of the pineapple 
cultivated in Florida, but the following are considered to 
be the standard forms. 

Cayenne (smooth). — Conical form, above medium in 
size, yellow color, best quality in taste. The plant pro- 
duces broad leaves, almost free from spines, which is a 
great advantage in its cultivation. It does not yield 
slips, and it is therefore difficult to propagate. 

Egyptian Queen. — Fruit medium size, conical, yellow 
color; excellent quality. This plant is also cultivated for 
market purposes, but on a limited extent. 

Pernambuco. — Rather small, oblong, yellow in color, 
and of excellent quality. 

Porto Rico. — Is a general favorite; the fruit is large, 
round, yellow with a good flavor, but not equal to the 
last two. The plant is robust and produces well; it 
is an excellent shipping fruit. The plant forms an abund- 
ance of suckers and slips. 

Ripley Queen. — Medium size, conical, yellow in color, 
and very good quality. 

Red Spanish. — Also called " Black Spanish," " Ha- 
vana," " Strawberry," " Scarlet Key," etc. It is generally 
cultivated for the market, although it is not equal to the 
other varieties in flavor. It is, however, hardy, easier to 
cultivate and stands the varying conditions better. The 
size of the fruit is medium, round, yellowish red in color. 

In propagating the pineapple several methods are 
used. 

1. From suckers, which grow near the base of the 
plant. 

2. From " rattoons," which are the buds below the sur- 
face of the ground shooting up into suckers. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. G13 

3. From slips produced by buds just under the fruit. 

4. From the crowns at the top of the fruit. 

5. From seeds. 

The suckers, either from the buds above or below the 
ground, are strong and vigorous. The rattoons are gen- 
erally left on the parent plant to grow to maturity with- 
out transplanting. These will usually fruit in about one 
year. The suckers from the buds above ground are 
broken off and transplanted. The slips are smaller than 
the suckers, and are more abundant on the parent plant. 
These slips are also broken off after the fruit is har- 
vested, and after they mature, which may be determined 
by the brown color of the stem at the base, and they are 
transplanted. Fruit is produced by the slips in about 
two years. Propagating by slips is the usual method 
practiced by the Florida growers, because it is thought 
that better fruit is produced than that obtained from 
suckers. The crown is generally shipped with the fruit 
when it is sent to market, so that this method of propa- 
gating is seldom adopted, reproduction by planting the 
seed is resorted to sometimes when it is desired to de- 
velop new varieties. 

In planting the soil must be well prepared and cleared 
of all weeds and trash. The plants are set out in beds 
18x20, 20x22, or 30x3(3 inches apart, depending upon the 
size of the plant. The offsets are prepared by trimming 
and smoothly paring a few of the lower leaves to encour- 
age the rapid formation of roots. Plant at least three 
inches deep in the soil in the case of suckers, ami about 
two inches in the case of slips. July, August and Sep- 
tember are the months in which the transplanting is 
done. An acre generally holds about 9,000 plants. 

The fertilizer used is one rich in nitrogen. This may 
be secured in cottonseed-meal or fish guano, applied at 
the rate of 1,000 or 1,500 pounds per acre. Florida soft 



614 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

phosphate, kainit or potash salts and cottonseed-meal 
will make a good fertilizer. 

Cultivating under open sheds is now practiced in some 
portions of Florida, and strong claims have been made 
concerning the merits of the system. It is claimed that 
the fruit matures sooner, is larger and better flavored 
than when grown in the open field. The moisture is not 
so rapidly evaporated, and the soil is therefore kept in 
better condition. These sheds are covered with slats 
1x3 inches and 18 feet long, separated 3 inches, so that 
sunlight can enter. The north and west sides are boarded 
up. 

Marketing. — The fruit is gathered just before ripe by 
breaking from the plant, care being taken not to bruise 
it. It is taken to the packing-house and cooled. The 
stem is neatly trimmed, and the entire fruit is wrapped 
in paper. The crown is not cut off. The style of crate 
used is what is known as barrel or half-barrel crates. In 
the first eight to ten pineapples are packed, and the 
latter is used to ship the fancy varieties of fruit. 

PLUM.— (Primus.) 

The plum tree is probably a native of Asia, whence it 
was early introduced into European gardens. The tree 
grows from fifteen to twenty feet high, and is conspicu- 
ous early in spring for its white blossoms. 

Loudon asserts that probably the natural color of 
the fruit is black; but the cultivated varieties are of 
various shades of green, yellow, red and blue. It is a 
delicious dessert fruit, in its best varieties, and is very 
much esteemed for pies, tarts and preserves. 

It is also dried for winter use. The prune, or dried 
plum, enters considerably into commerce. When fully 
ripe, plums are, in moderate quantity, very nutritious 



FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 615 

and wholesome, but in an unripe state are more apt to 
disagree with the stomach than most other fruits. 

Prunes are dried by artificial heat. They are laid 
singly, without touching each other, on plates, which are 
placed in ovens, after the bread is removed, or in kilns 
prepared for the purpose, and occasionally moved and 
turned. In order to have them fair and glossy, they must 
be suddenly cooled when taken from the oven. They 
should be dried carefully and gradually. They are excel- 
lent when dried with sugar, as directed for peaches. 
From the analysis of the stones, bark, leaves and wood, 
it is evident that common salt is one of the most essential 
manures to apply to the soil in which the plum is culti- 
vated. Burnt clay, swamp muck, common salt, and wood 
ashes are among the best fertilizers. 

Propa<jatiu)i and Culture. — The plum is generally bud- 
ded or grafted upon stocks raised from the seed of some 
free-growing variety. The Chickasaw plum, however, 
makes a very good stock; it should be grafted at the 
collar, and transplanted so deep that the scions can 
throw out roots. This stock makes very pretty dwarf 
trees for the garden. By this mode, the tree can be pro- 
pagated at any time during the winter months. 

Stone fruits require to be grafted early in the season. 
In transplanting where they are to remain they should 
be twelve feet apart. The best soil for the plum is a 
heavy clay loam, moderately rich. As the plum throws 
out long, straggling branches, which are unsightly and 
unproductive, this should be remedied by shortening in, 
as with the peach, so as to form a round, compact head. 
Most stone fruits require to be shortened in, more or less, 
or the growth becomes unsightly and the tree short-lived. 
It is an excellent plan, where practicable, to plant a 
tree or two near the door of the house and kitchen, where 
there is considerable passing and repassing, and the 



U1G 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



ground becomes hard-trodden. Such trees are less in- 
fested by the great enemy to stone fruit — the curculio — 
which is quite a timid, as well as cunning, insect. 

Species. — There are seven distinct species of- the 
Print us grown in this country, viz.: Prunus Americana, or 
native group; Primus august i folia, or Chickasaw group; 
Prunus hortulana, or wild goose group; Prunus domestica, 
or European group; Prunus cerasifera, or Marianna group; 
Prunus tri flora, or Japanese group; Prunus puniila. A 
great many varieties have been developed from these 
species, some of which have been cultivated in the South- 
ern States for a long period of time. 

VARIETIES. 

Prunus Angustifolia. 

Caddo Chief. — Fruit red, oval, small; ripens about 
the middle of May. 

Lone Star. — Fruit red, oval, small; ripens in middle 
summer; quality fair. This plum originated in Texas. 

Newman. — Fruit rather large, oval, yellow, quality 
very good; ripens in Middle Alabama from July 8th to 
August 25th. The tree is low and spreading. 

Yellow Transparent. — Originated in Texas; good 
market plum; fruit large, oval, yellow, and it ripens 
early. 

Prunus Hortulana. 

Cumberland. — Fruit average size, round, yellow in 
color and sweet flavored. Originated near Augusta, 
Georgia, from seed secured in the Cumberland Moun- 
tains. The fruit ripens about the latter part of August. 

Golden Beauty. — An excellent plum which was origi- 
nated in Texas. The fruit is round-ovate, dark yellow, 
medium late. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



617 



Wild Goose. — A cling stone variety, sweet and good 
quality, small, round and purple in color. Ripens early 
in June, and is an excellent market plum. 

Missouri. — Fruit rather large, round and deep yellow. 
Excellent quality. Late. 

Prunus Domestica. 




Fig. 260 — German Prune (after Bailey). Prunus domestica. 
Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 131. 

Bingham. — Fruit large, oval; skin deep yellow, spot- 
ted with red toward the sun; stalk in a small cavity; flesh 
yellow, juicy, rich and delicious; clingstone; tree a fine 
grower and good bearer. Ripens July 1st. 

Columbia. — Very large, roundish; skin brownish-pur- 



618 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

pie, with fawn-colored specks; bloom thick and blue; 
stalk an inch long, stout, in a narrow cavity; flesh orange, 
not very juicy, sugary, rich, and excellent; freestone. 
Ripe June 20th. A magnificent variety, of excellent 
quality. Tree hardy and productive. 

Damson (French Damson, Free Damson, Purple Dam- 
son, Blue Damson). — Fruit small, oval and purple, with 
a decided bloom. Flavor rather acid. Very productive. 
Suitable for cooking. Late. 

Duane's Purple. — Branches downy; fruit very large, 
oblong, swollen on one side of the suture; skin reddish- 




Fig. 261— Green Gage 



purple in the sun, paler in the shade, dotted sparsely 
with yellow specks, and covered with lilac bloom; stalk 
slender, of medium length, in a narrow cavity; flesh 
amber-colored, juicy, sprightly, moderately sweet, adher- 
ing partially to the stone. Ripe — Georgia, July 10th; 
New York, August 10th, with the Washington. 

Green Gage. — Fruit medium size; freestone; ripens 
in August. 

Jefferson. — Fruit of the largest size, roundish oval; 
stalk an inch long, pretty stout; suture distinct; skin 
golden yellow, purplish-red on the sunny side, and thinly 
covered with white bloom; flesh deep orange, a little dry, 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. G19 

good; not equal to the description in the books. As the 
tree bears abundantly, and the fruit ripens late, hangs 
long on the tree, and is entirely free from decay, it is 
indispensable. The handsomest of all plums. Ripens 
last of July and first of August. 

Imperial Gage. — Fruit large, oval, greenish-yellow; 




Fig. 262 — Jefferson. 

quality excellent, Ripens in July, and it is very produc- 
tive. 

Lombard. — Fruit medium size, round-ovate, violet red 
in color, flesh yellow; good quality. This plum is adapted 
to light soils, and it is an early, productive variety. 

Prince's Yellow Gage. — Fruit medium size, broad- 
est toward the stalk; suture slight; skin golden yellow, 
slightly clouded, and with copious white bloom; stalk 
an inch long, inserted in a small cavity; flesh deep yel- 



620 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



low, sweet, juicy, and fine flavored; freestone; tree very 
productive; fruit lasts a long time. One of the best for 
a long time in this climate. Ripe June 10th. 





Fig. 263— Imperial Gage. 



Fig. 264— Lombard. 





Fig. 265— Prince's Yellow Gage. 



Fig. 200 — Washington. 



Rei> Magnum Bonum, ok Purple Egg. — Large and 
beautiful ; egg-shaped; violet red, deeper in the sun, with 



FRUITS VARIETIES ASD CULTURE. 621 

small gray dots; flesh greenish, rather firm, juicy, and 
agreeably subacid; freestone. A fair plum for the table, 
and makes the best of preserves. Ripens July 10th. Not 
much subject to rot. 

Rivers' Early Favorite. — Fruit medium, or a little 
below, roundish oval, with a shallow suture; stalk very 
short; skin deep blackish-purple, sprinkled with russet 
dots, and covered with a thin, blue bloom; flesh greenish- 
yellow, very juicy, sweet, of excellent flavor, separating 
freely from the small stone; shoots slender, slightly 
downy. Ripens — Georgia, June 15th to 30th; New York, 
August 1st. An excellent, early, dessert plum, following 
immediately the Jaune Hative. Productive. 

Washington. — Tree vigorous; leaves large, broad, 
glossy and rumpled; wood light brown; fruit very large, 
roundish oval; suture shallow, except at the stalk; skin 
pale greenish-yellow, faintly marbled with green, 
changing at maturity to darker yellow, with a bright 
blush in the sun; stalk short, in a shallow, wide cavity; 
flesh yellow, firm, sweet, and luscious; stone pointed, and 
separates freely. Ripens — Georgia, early in July; New 
York, the latter half of August. This is one of the most 
attractive and desirable varieties in all sections. 

Prunus Cerasifera. 

DeCaradeuc. — This plum ripens early in June, and is 
sweet and juicy. The fruit is round, medium size, yellow, 
with brown red tinge. 

Prunus Triflora.* 

These plums have become very popular within the 
past ten or fifteen years, and many varieties have been 
developed from the original species. The propagation is 



*The illustrations accompanying the descriptions of the Japan plums are 
by Prof. L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University Experiment Station. 



622 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



accomplished by budding on stocks of the Marianna plum 
of the cerasifera species, or on peach roots. The follow- 
ing represent some of the best varieties: 

Abundance, or Yellow Botan (similar to Chase). — 




Fig. 267 — Japanese Plum. Abundance (after Bailey). Botan. 
Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 106. 

One of the best of the group, and more widely planted 
than, possibly, any other species. It ripens its fruit in 
the latter part of June. The fruit is round-ovate, above 
the average size, brownish-red in color, with yellow 



FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



623 



ground, flesh yellow. Thinning the fruit increases the 
size. 

Berckmans, ok Sweet Botan. — Named in honor of 
Mr. P. J. Berckmans, of Augusta, Georgia. The fruit is 
large, green in color, with a dull purple hue. Freestone 
and good quality. Ripens the latter part of June. 

Burbank. — The fruit is round and above medium size, 




Fig. 268 — Japanese Plums. Berckmans (ailer Bailey). True Sweet 

Botan. Sweet Botan. White Flesh Botan. Botan. 

Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 139. 

purple yellow. Ripens the latter part of July. The tree 
has a spreadiug habit. 

Chabot (Bailey, Yellow Japan, Chase).— The fruit is 
medium size, round-ovate, red tinged with purple. Fol- 
lows Burbank in ripening towards the end of July. The 
flavor is somewhat acid. Clingstone. 

Louisiana (Normand, No. 15). — This plum originated 



62 I 



GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 



with Mr. J. L. Normand, of Marksville, Louisiana; it is a 
hybrid of the Japan and native plum. 

KELSEY. — A very large plum, round-ovate, yellowish- 
red, excellent flavor and juicy. Semi-clingstone, pit 




Fig. 269 — fiurbank Plum. Division of Pomology, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

small. Ripens from the middle of July to the end of 
August. One of the best Japan plums. 

Kerb (Hattankio, '2). — Fruit ovate, yellow in color and 
average size; tine flavor, juicy and subacid; clingstone. 
Ripens about the middle of June. 

NORMAND. — Fruit rather above medium, round, in- 
clining to heart-shaped, skin and flesh yellow, with fine 



I Rl I is \ \i;i l i u.s A.ND rii.'ii RE. 



• ;■'. 



flavor. Freestone. The tree grows i«> a symmetrical 

shape. 

Red June a.nd Red Negate. -By some authorities 
these two forms are pronounced to be the same, but they 















1 





Fig. 270 — Japanese Plum. Chabot (after Bailey). Bailey. Yellow Japan. 
Chase. Cornell Experimenl Bulletin L06. 



are sold by the nurserymen as distincl varieties. The 
Red June produces a fruil of average size, heart-shaped, 
dark red, with a decided bloom, making a handsome 
plum. This is a fine early variety. The tree is a rigorous 
grower, and very productive. 

40 



626 



GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 



Satsuma. — Sometimes called Blood plum, because of 
the dark red color of the fruit. Size average to above 
medium, round to broad conical. The flavor is excellent. 

Plums suitable for Middle Virginia, Middle No?/th 
Carolina, Northern South Carolina, Northern Georgia, 
Northeastern Alabama, and Middle Tennessee: 




Fig. 271 — Japanese Plums. Louisiana (after Bailey). Normand No. 15. 
Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 139.] 



Abundance, 

Green Gage, or Bavay, 

Burbank, 

Chabot, 

Columbia, 

Damson, 



Duane Purple, 

Imperial Gage, 

Jefferson, 

Kerr (Hattankio, 2), 

Lombard, 

Newman, 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



627 



Prince Yellow, Satsuma, 

Red Negate or Red June, Washington, 

Wild Goose. 

Plums suitable for Eastern Virginia, Eastern North 




Fig. 272—1. Kelsey Plum. 2. Satsuma Plum. 
(Div. Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agri.) 

Carolina, Southern South Carolina, Southern Georgia, 
all of Alabama except the northeastern portions, Missis- 
sippi, Southern Arkansas, Western Tennessee, Northern 
Louisiana, Eastern Texas: 



628 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



Abundance, 
Berckmans, 
Burbank, 
Caddo Chief, 
Caradeuc de, 
Ckabot, 
Cumberland, 
Georgeson (Hattankio 



Golden Beauty, 
Kerr (Hattankio, 2), 
Lone Star, 
Newman, 
Red Negate, 
Satsuma, 

Transparent, Yellow, 
Wild Goose. 




Fig. 273— Japanese Plum. Red June (after Bailey). Shiro-Smono. Cornell 
Experiment Station Bulletin 106. 

Plums suitable for Southern Louisiana and Florida: 



Babcock, 

Berckmans, 

Burbank, 



Kelsey, 
Satsuma, 
Wild Goose. 



Marketing. — Pick the fruit just before ripe, so that it 
will not decay in transit. The ripening will take place 



FRUITS VARIETIES AKD CULTURE. 



629 



soon enough before reaching market 



Pack carefully 
either in climax maskets or in 24-quart strawberry cases. 
It is best to use smaller cases than usually adopted in 
shipping other fruit, but one-third bushel crates will 




Fig. 274— Japanese Plum. Georgeson (after Bailey). Hattankio No. 1. 
Hattankio. Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 106. 

serve very well if the plums are firm and in good condi- 
tion. Pack firmly, so that there will be no shifting of the 
fruit during its transit to market, because the bruising 
will soon cause it to rot ; moreover, the packages present 



630 



GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 



a much more attractive appearance when the plums are 
packed firmly and neatly in the baskets or crates. The 
shipment should be quick and prompt. 

POMEGRANATE.— (Tunica Granatum.) 

This plant is generally grown for ornament, although 
some people like the fruit. There are five varieties, viz. : 




Fig. 275 — Pomegranate (Acid). 

Acid, Dwarf, Purple, Sweet and Violet. The plant makes 
an attractive addition to the lawn or yard because of the 
beautiful orange red flowers and the large yellow apple- 
shaped fruit. The fruit has such a large quantity of seeds 
it is difficult to eat, but a pleasant, cooling drink is made 
by bruising the seeds in a glass of water and sweetening 
with sugar. 

The plant is propagated by seeds, cuttings or layers. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 631 

It is hardy in all sections of the Gulf States south of a 
line drawn through Middle Alabama. 

QUINCE. — (Cydonia vulgaris.) 

The Quince is a small, hardy tree, seldom growing over 
twelve to fifteen feet in height; thickly branched; with 
ovate leaves, whitish underneath, on short petioles; the 
flowers are white or pale pink color, and the fruit appears 
on shoots of the same year's growth, varying in shape, 
but having a resemblance to that of the apple or pear. It 
is, when ripe, highly fragrant, and of a fine golden yellow 
color, making the tree quite ornamental. Quinces are 
seldom eaten raw, but for baking, stewing, preserving, 
marmalades, or pies, along with apples, they are much 
esteemed. They are also dried for winter use, giving an 
excellent flavor to dried apples and peaches. 

For these purposes the quince has been long in cultiva- 
tion, having been in great esteem among the Greeks and 
Romans. The mucilage from the seeds was formerly used 
in medicine instead of gum-water. The quince is propa- 
gated from seed, layers, slips or cuttings, and grows very 
readily from the latter. Cuttings, if planted about the 
time the buds commence swelling in the spring, rarely 
fail to grow. Quinces usually reproduce themselves from 
seed, but occasionally vary. Quince stocks are very much 
used for budding the pear upon, for which the Angers 
quince is preferred, although we have found the common 
or apple-shaped equally good in every respect. The 
quince likes a deep, moist soil and cool exposure, growing 
naturally upon the banks of streams. It, however, grows 
to admiration in any good, rich, friable soil, and no tree is 
more benefited by manuring, especially with vegetable 
manure. Salt is said to act beneficially if applied during 
winter. If applied occasionally in small doses at a dis- 



(33:3 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 

tance from the trunk, the fruit will not drop; plant the 
trees ten feet apart. 

The quince is subject to the blight, like the pear, and is 
also attacked by the borer which infests the apple; the 
blighted portion must be cut off and burned, as with the 
pear. The borer must be dug out. 

The best fruit is obtained from those trained in the 
form of a tree, but on account of the borer it is best to use 
the bush form with three or four main stems, so if one 
is destroyed there are others left to take its place. Thus 
trained, the bush should be moderately pruned, or the 
fruit will be inferior. If there is an over-crop, the fruit, 
should be thinned. The quince begins to bear when three 
or four years transplanted. Varieties: 

Apple or Orange-Shaped. — This is the common 
variety, with large, roundish fruit, with a short neck; 
skin light golden yellow; flesh firm, but stews tender; 
leaves oval; shoots slender. If the core be cut out and 
the hole filled with sugar and baked, it forms a fine 
dessert dish. 

Pear-Shaped. — Fruit large, pyriform, oblong, taper- 
ing to the stalk; skin yellow; flesh of firmer texture than 
when preserved, and not quite as good iu flavor and color 
as the former. Fruit ripens a fortnight later, and when 
picked, keeps much longer; leaves oblong-ovate. Tree 
of more vigorous growth, but does not bear so well. 

Portugal. — Fruit still more oblong, of lighter color, 
milder flavored, and of better quality than the preceding- 
kinds; leaf larger and broader; shoots stouter; ripens 
between the other two; a shy bearer, pretty good as a 
stock for the pear. Tree larger than the other varieties. 

Angers. — A variety of the last, the strongest grower 
of all the quinces, and much used for pear stocks. The 
fruit is said to be larger and better than any other kind. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 633 

Chinese Quince (Cydonia Sinensis). — Leaves resemble 
those of the common quince in form, but have a glossy 
surface; the flowers are rose-colored, with a delicate 
fragrance, similar to that of the violet. The fruit is very 
large, oblong, and somewhat ribbed like a muskmelon; 
skin golden yellow; flesh hard and acrid, but is said to 
make a desirable preserve. A very beautiful shrub when 
in fruit. 

THE RASPBERRY.— ( Rubus.) 

The Raspberiy is a low, deciduous shrub, of which sev- 
eral species are common along the fences, both in Europe 
and America. The large-fruited varieties most esteemed 
in our gardens all originated from the long cultivated 
Rubus I doeus, or Mount Ida Bramble, which appears first 
to have been introduced into the gardens of the south of 
Europe from Mount Ida. It is now quite naturalized in 
some parts of the country. Besides this we have growing- 
wild the common black and white raspberry, or Thimble- 
berries (Rubus occidentalis), and the red raspberry (Rubus 
strigosus), with very good fruit. 

Uses. — The raspberry is held in general estimation, not 
only as one of the most refreshing and agreeable fruits 
for the dessert, but it is employed general ly for pre- 
serving, jams, ices, sauces, tarts and jellies; and on a 
larger scale by confectioners for making syrups, and by 
distillers for making brandy. Raspberry wine is made 
in the same way as currant wine, and is considered the 
most fragrant of all domestic wines. 

Propagation. — The raspberry is propagated by suckers 
or by dividing the roots. The seeds are planted only when 
new varieties are desired. 

Soil and Culture. — The best soil is a rich, deep loam, 
rather moist than dry, provided it is not too much ex 
posed to our hot Southern sun. The raspberry succeeds 



634 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

best at the South when planted on the north side of a 
fence or building, but where it can have the morning sun; 
planted in the shade of trees it never does well. Give a 
good manuring every spring with well-rotted stable 
manure, and keep clear from grass and weeds with the 
hoe; prune out the old dead canes every spring. A fine 
late crop can readily be obtained by cutting over the 
whole stool, in the spring, to within a few inches of the 
ground. They will then shoot up fresh wood, which 
comes into bearing in August or September. 

Varieties: — The finest raspberries in general cultivation 
for the dessert are the Red and White Antwerp, Cuthbert, 
Fastolf, Golden Queen, Orange, French, Franconia, 
Gregg, Philadelphia, Shaffer's Colossal, and Turner. 

The common American Red is most esteemed for 
flavoring liquors, or making brandy and cordials; and the 
American Black is preferred by most persons for cooking. 

The ever-bearing varieties are esteemed for prolonging 
the season of this fruit. 

Red Antwerp (R. Idoeus). — This variety is also known 
as Old Red Antwerp, Knevett's Antwerp, True Red Ant- 
werp, Howland's Red Antwerp, Burley, etc. It is the 
common Red Antwerp of England and America, and is 
quite distinct from the North River variety, which is 
shorter in growth, and has conical-shaped fruit. Canes 
strong and tall; spines light red, rather numerous, and 
pretty strong; fruit large, nearly globular, color dark red, 
with large grains, and covered with a thick bloom; juicy, 
with a brisk vinous flavor. 

Fastolf (R. Idoeus). — One of the most vigorous of the 
foreign varieties, and does very well in Georgia. Fruit 
very large, roundish, conical, purplish-red; tender, rich, 
and high-flavored. Canes strong, erect, branching, with 
strong spines. The foregoing are all that we can recom- 
mend for Southern cultivation from personal experience. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



635 



The variety cultivated in the Northern States is very 
large; many of them we have tested here with but poor 
success. 

Cuthbert (R. strigosus). — This is one of the most de- 
sirable raspberries for the South. The fruit is red, large, 




Fig 27(>— Gregg Raspberry (after Bailey). Natural size. Cornell 
Experiment Station Bulletin. 

juicy and fine flavored. It ripens about the middle or 
latter part of May. 

Gregg (R. oceidentalis). — Fruit large round-ovate, black 
to dark purple. Ripens a short time before the Cuthbert. 
This is one of the best of the black-cap varieties. A 
favorite market variety. 



636 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Golden Queen (R. strigosiis). — An excellent summer 
variety; fruit is large and round-conical, yellow color; 
prolific and good flavor. 

Schaffer's Colossal (R. neglecius). — This is one of 
the cap varieties. The fruit is very large, round, of a dull 
purple, with an acid flavor, and productive. A hardy 
plant for the dry summers of the South. Late and a good 
shippiug fruit. 

Turner (R. strigosiis). — A red raspberry and, like the 
last, suitable for the South', because it withstands the 




Fig. 277— Golden Queen Raspberry. 

hot summers admirably, aud it produces fruit of excel- 
lent quality and beauty. 

Marketing. — The fruit must be packed in small 
baskets holding not more than a pint because in greater 
bulk the berries are easily crushed and ruined by their 
own weight. These pint boxes are then placed in cases 
holding twenty-four pints, with ample ventilation, so 
that the fruit will keep cool. Ship promptly and over the 
shortest routes, since the raspberry will not keep long 
after being gathered. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 



637 



STRAWBERRY.— ( Fragaria.) 

The botanical name of the Strawberry is derived from 
the delightful fragrance of the ripe fruit. Its common 
name has arisen from the ancient practice of laying straw 
between the plants, to keep the ground moist and the 
fruit clean. This fruit is fragrant, delicious, and univer- 
sally esteemed. The first offering of the season, in the 
way of ripe fruit, nothing that comes after it can excel kk a 
dish of ripe strawberries smothered in cream," or fresh 
from the plant. It is, indeed, the most popular and whole- 
some of all the small fruits; for, besides its grateful 
flavor, the subacid juice has a cooling quality peculiarly 
acceptable in summer. In addition to its excellence for 
the dessert, it is a favorite fruit for making jams, ices, 
jellies, and preserves. 

The English wood strawberry was the first brought 
into cultivation. Says old Tusser, turning over its culti- 
vation to the ladies, as beneath his attention: 

" Wife, unto the garden, and set me a plot 
With strawberry plants, the best to be got, 
Such growing abroad, amid trees in the wood, 
Well chosen and picked, prove excellent good." 

Plants taken directly from the field into the garden 
yield at once a tolerable crop. This climate is well 
adapted to the culture of this fruit, since by giving the 
plants a due supply of moisture, fruit can be gathered 
the greater part of the summer and autumn. 

In its natural state, the strawberry generally produces 
perfect or hermaphrodite flowers; the hermaphrodite are 
those which have both the stamens and pistils so well 
developed as to produce a tolerably fair crop of fruit. 
Cultivation has so affected the strawberry in this respect, 
that there are now three classes of varieties. First, those 
in which the male or staminate organs are always per- 



63S 



GABDENIKG FOE THE SOUTH. 



feet; but the female, or pistillate organs, are so defective 
that they will very rarely bear perfect fruit. Those are 
called staminate. Second, those in which the female, or 
pistillate organs, are perfect; but in which the male 
organs are generally so defective that they cannot pro- 
duce fruit at all, unless in the neighborhood of, and fer- 
tilized by, staminate or hermaphrodite plants. Impreg- 
nated by these, they bear enormous crops. Third, those 
which, like the native varieties, are true hermaphrodites; 
that is, perfect in stamens and more or less perfect in 
pistils, so that they generally produce a tolerable crop, 





Fig. 278. 

Imperfect or Fig. 279. 

Pistillate. Perfect or Bisexual. 

and, in favorable seasons, the pistils being fully de- 
veloped, they will produce a good one. 

This is called the staminate class in some books. The 
first of these classes, the staminate, rarely producing 
fruit, and running exuberantly to vine, should be dug up 
wherever found, since the hermaphrodite are productive, 
and equally useful for fertilizing. It is to the pistillate 
varieties, fertilized by the hermaphrodite, that we must 
look for large crops of fruit. 

In beds of each of these varieties, seedlings will spring 
up, differing from the parents; but runners from any 
variety will always produce flowers of the same class and 
similar in all respects to the parent plant. By the due 
admixture of hermaphrodite and pistillate plants, five 
thousand quarts have been picked from an acre at Cin- 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 639 

ciimati, where the strawberry season is usually less thau 
a month. 

Potash, soda and phosphoric acid are the elements 
most likely to be wanting in the soil. Wood ashes and 
the carbonates of potash and soda prove very beneficial 
applications. 

Propagation and Culture. — To raise the strawberry in 
perfection requires good varieties, a proper location, care- 
ful cultivation, vegetable manure, mulching the roots, 
and regular watering. 

The strawberry bed should be in the lowest part of the 
garden, succeeding best on a bottom near some little 
stream of water, where the soil is moist and cool; no trees 
or plants should be allowed to overshadow it, to drink up 
the moisture of the soil. New land is the best, and the 
most easily kept free from weeds. The soil should be 
dug or plowed deep. 

It is not required to be very rich, unless with decayed 
vegetable matter, as animal manures produce only a 
growth of vine. Plant good, vigorous runners from old 
stocks, three feet apart each wa} T ; three rows of pistil- 
lates, aud then one row of good hermaphrodites, and so 
on, until the bed or plot is filled; cultivate precisely as 
you would corn, and as often. As the runners appear, cut 
them off, and keep the plants in hills; this is a much bet- 
ter plan than to permit them to run together and occupy 
the entire surface of the ground; after the beds have done 
fruiting, still keep them clear from grass and weeds, and 
when the leaves fall from the trees in the fall, give a good 
coat of these as a winter protection. 

There is no fruit which has been so greatly improved 
within the last few years as has the strawberry, in size, 
productiveness, and flavor; it is now as generally culti- 
vated as the apple or any of our standard vegetables. 
Most of the then esteemed varieties are now superseded 



640 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

by new and improved ones. The following represent 
some of the most desirable varieties for the South: 

The following varieties are early strawberries: 

Bubach (No. 5), Hoffman, 

Cloud, Lady Thompson, 

Crescent, Meek, 

Greenville, Michel (very early). 

The following varieties are medium in maturing: 

Bederwood, Haverland, 

Captain Jack, Jessie, 

Cumberland, Neunan, 

Downing, Parker Earle, 

Enhance, Sharpless, 

Wilson. 

The following varieties are late strawberries: 
Brandywine, Gandy, Eureka, 

The following varieties are especially desirable for 
most sections of the South: Bederwood, Brandywine, 
Bubach No. 5, Crescent, Cumberland, Downing, Enhance, 
Gandy, Greenville, Haverland, Hoffman, Lady Thomp- 
son, Michel Early, Neunan, Parker Earle, Sharpless, 
Wilson. 

The following are good market varieties, and will ship 
well: Bederwood, Bubach No. 5, Cloud, Crescent, En- 
hance, Gandy, Haverland, Hoffman, Lady Thompson, 
Michel, Neunan, Parker Earle, Wilson. 

Bubach, No. 5 (pistillate). — The plants are vigorous in 
some sections and weak in others. Leaf large, runners 
few, fruit large, irregular in shape, inclined to conical, 
light red; not a good shipper. 




Plate 17 — Jessie Strawberries. 




(641) Plate 18— Bubach No. 5 Strawberries. 

41 Photographs by R. L. Watts, Tennessee Experiment Station. 



642 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



Varieties. 



Bederwood 

Belmont 

Brandywine 

Bubach No. 5. . . . 
Captain Jack.. 

Cloud 

Clyde 

Crescent 

Cumberland 

Downing 

Enhance 

Enormous 

Eureka 

Gandy 

Greenville 

Haverland 

Hoffman 

Jessie 

Lady Thompson 
Meek's Early. . . . 

Michel Early 

Neuman. 

Parker Earle. . . . 

Sharpless 

Tennessee 

Wilson '. . . . . 



*# 



** 
** 






** 



* 

** 


* 


* 


* 


** 




* 


** 


* 




* 


** 


* 




** 


** 


* 


** 






* successfully grown. ** Very successful. 

Cloud (pistillate). — A vigorous southern plant which 
resists drought well; fruit medium, firm, subacid and 
ripens evenly. Fairly good shipper. 

Crescent (pistillate). — Vigorous plant with dark green 
foliage; fruit medium size, dull red; productive; many 
runners; stands dry weather well. A good shipper. 

Cumberland (hermaphrodite). — Few runners, injured 
by dry weather; leaf surface large and deep green; fruit 
large, excellent in flavor; too soft for shipment to distant 
points, but a good home berry; very prolific. 




Plate 19 — Gandy Strawberries. 




(613) Plate 20-Haverland Strawberries. 

Photographs by R L. Watts Tennessee Exneriment Station. 



644 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

Gandy (hermaphrodite). — Some planters report this 
plant as " strong, vigorous with plenty of runners," 
others again say that " it is a weak grower, setting few 
runners. " Fruit large and well shaped; ripens evenly; 
quality good and ships well. Popular in Mississippi. 

Haverland (pistillate). — Highly thought of in many 
sections. Leaves with long stems and dark green in 
color; vigorous and prolific. Fruit large with excellent 
flavor; color deep red; excellent market berry. 




Fig. 280 — Sharpless Strawberry. 

Hoffman (hermaphrodite). — A southern type, vigor- 
ous in growth, with numerous runners; fruit long, 
medium sized ; dark red and firm; acid taste. Productive 
and one of the best market varieties. 

Michel's Early (hermaphrodite). — A strong, healthy 
plant, with large leaves; many runners. Fruit medium 
size; excellent quality. Withstands heat and dry weather 
well. 

Sharpless (hermaphrodite). — A good home berry, but 
not suitable for market purposes. Fruit of excellent 
quality, and very large and irregular in shape; dark red 
in color. 



FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 645 

Wilson's Albany (hermaphrodite). — This is a very 
popular strawberry, although not of first quality in 
flavor, being rather too acid, but as it is a very hardy 
variety, vigorous grower, and very productive, it will 
long be a favorite fruit for domestic cultivation. Fruit 
large, very dark red, conical in form, trusses short aud 
stout; leaves large, dark green, with short petioles. An 
enormous bearer, and continues for a long time. One of 
the most desirable varieties. A standard sort. 

Marketing. — Pick the fruit with the stem attached, 
and gather it early in the morning, while the dew is on 
the plant; the fruit will stand handling much better in 
this condition than it will after the sun has risen and 
dried off the dew, causing the strawberry to soften. 
Transport to the packing-house, spread out to dry. Care- 
fully assort, rejecting all fruit except the large and well- 
formed kinds. Pack in baskets firmly, but do not jam, 
and handle as little as possible, so that the " bloom" will 
not be destroyed. Select a reliable commercial house 
and ship the fruit direct to it; aud endeavor to establish 
a good name by sending only the best fruit in the best 
condition. 



646 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULAE. 

The following pages contain a few tables and formulae which the 
practical gardener will find useful in the prosecution of his profession. 
This information has been culled from standard authorities, and can, 
therefore, be relied upon for accuracy. 

Whitewash: 

The following receipt for making whitewash is used by the United 
States Government for whitewashing the light-houses, and is almost 
as serviceable as paint. It gives a brilliant surface: 

Slake with boiling water a half bushel of lime, cover during the 
operation to keep in the steam; after straining add a peck of salt, 
which has been dissolved in warm water; then add a thin paste made 
from three pounds of ground rice stirred in while hot; then add a half 
pound of Spanish whiting and one pound of glue previously dissolved 
in water. Add five gallons of hot water to the mixture, stir well, and 
allow to stand for a few days well covered. This whitewash must be 
applied hot. 

Absorptive Power of Soils (Henderson) : 

100 pounds of pure clay absorbs 70 pounds of water. 

100 pounds of sand absorbs 25 pounds of water. 

100 pounds of clay loam absorbs 50 pounds of water. 

100 pounds of chalk absorbs 45 pounds of water. 

100 pounds of loamy sand absorbs 40 pounds of water. 

100 pounds of calcareous sand absorbs 25 pounds of water. 

Schubler's Experiment Shows that — 

1,000 tons of pulverized soil will absorb moisture when exposed to the 
atmosphere, as follows: 

Sandy clay 26 tons. 

Loamy clay 30 tons. 

Stiff clay 36 tons. 

Garden mould 45 tons. 



USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULAE. 



647 



Amount of Land in Different Fields: 

10 rods x 16 rods 1 acre. 

5 rods x 32 rods 1 acre. 

8 rods x 20 rods 1 acre. 

4 rods x 40 rods 1 acre. 

5 yards x 968 yards 1 acre. 

10 yards x 484 yards 1 acre. 

20 yards x 242 yards 1 acre. 

40 yards x 121 yards 1 acre. 

* 

220 feet x 198 feet 1 acre. 

110 feet x 369 feet 1 acre. 

60 feet x 726 feet 1 acre. 

120 feet x 363 feet 1 acre. 

200 feet x 108.9 feet i acre. 

100 feet x 145.2 feet i acre. 

100 feet x 108.9 feet \ acre. 

25 feet x 100 feet 957 acre. 

25 feet x 150 feet .109 acre. 

4356 square feet 10 acre. 

Number of Trees or Plants to an Acre (Henderson): 

30 x 30 48 6x6 1210 

25 x 25 69 5x5 1742 

20x20 10S 5x4 2178 

19x19 120 5x3 2904 

18 x 18 134 5x2 4356 

17 x 17 150 5x1 8712 

16x16 170 4x4 2722 

15 x 15 193 4x3 3630 

14 x 14 222 4x2 5445 

13 x 13 257 4x1 10390 

12x12 302 3x3 4870 

11 x 11 360 3x2 7260 

10 x 10 435 3x1 14520 

9x 9 537 2x2 10890 

8x 8 680 2x1 21780 

7x 7 888 lxl 43560 



648 



GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 



Composition of Vegetables and Fruits. 

(Department of Agriculture.) 









Nitrogen. 




Water. 


Protein. 


Fat. 


Feee 
Extract. 


Ash. 


'.11 llll 


1.80 


ii 30 


2.80 


0.70 


68.46 


7.15 


0.69 


20 30 


1.69 


87.23 


2 20 


0.37 


7.52 


o 7ti 


88 50 


1 50 


0.10 


8.00 


1.00 


86. 50 


1.80 


0.10 


9.80 


0.90 


90.30 


2.10 


0.40 


5.80 


1 40 


88.20 


1 10 


0.40 


9.20 


1.10 


87.10 


4 50 


60 


6.30 . 


1.50 


94.5H 


1.10 


0.10 


3.30 


1.00 


75. in 


3 10 


1 10 


19.70 


70 


81.25 


2 81 


1.10 


13 67 


0.66 


14.80 


20.75 


1.44 


55.72 


3.22 


90.80 


1 60 


0.80 


4.90 


0.80 


96.00 


80 


20 


1.80 


ii 5o 


92.93 


1 15 


0.31 


4.34 


0.50 


91.10 


2 on 


0.10 


5.50 


1 30 


95 90 


(l 97 


II 20 


1 60 


0.78 


88 10 


3 -Ml 


in 


6 80 


1.20 


87.60 


1.40 


o 30 


9 40 


1 40 


83.00 


1 611 


50 


13.50 


1.40 


87.41 


1 99 


II |0 


6.04 


0.74 


93 in 


II no 


10 


3.90 


70 


91.80 


1 30 


(i Hi 


5.80 


1.00 


US llll 


2.20 


10 


IS so 


0.90 


71 in 


1.50 


40 


22.70 


1.00 


78 06 


1 116 


0.55 


14 is 


0.88 


94.40 


II lilt 


0.70 


3.60 


0.70 


92. in 


2 10 


0.50 


2.40 


1 94 


88.10 


0.90 


20 


9.10 


1 7o 


88.60 


1 20 


O 20 


7.50 


1 20 


91.26 


] no 


47 


5.84 


0.73 


90 50 


1 10 


0.20 


li 20 


0.80 


84.11 


n 21 


0.28 


14.26 


23 


85 00 


1.10 




13 40 


0.50 


66 25 


1.41 


1 35 


28.88 


1.15 


88 '.'1 


0.94 


2 os 


5.03 


0.58 


86 1" 


1.10 


84 


11.14 


0.58 


88 90 


O 411 


o on 


9.90 


0.20 


77 in 


1.30 


1 60 


19 2(1 


0.50 


89.50 


II llll 




9 30 


0.60 


89.30 


1.00 


90 


7 20 


0.50 


86 90 


0.80 


o 20 


11.60 


o 50 


84 40 


60 


0.50 


14.10 


O III 


66 10 


(i 80 


0.70 


31:50 


90 


89 28 


ii 39 


0.26 


9.31 


o 35 


78 40 


1 no 




20 10 


0.50 


76.80 


1 50 


1 60 


19.50 


60 


85.82 


99 


1 00 


12.60 


(id 


;mi 80 


1.00 


o 70 


5.50 


O (id 


92.40 


0.40 


O 20 


6.70 


30 


82 42 


0.66 


;{ on 


10.31 


41 


1 sn 


21 00 


r,i no 


17.30 


2.00 


4.40 


27 90 


61.20 


3.50 


2.90 


45.00 


6 20 


5.40 


42.10 


1 30 


14.10 


5 70 


50.60 


27.90 


1 70 


92.70 


40 


1 50 


4.60 


o so 


3 7ii 


15.60 


65 30 


13.00 


2 10 


:; 7n 


15.40 


67 40 


11.40 


2 10 


9.20 


25.80 


38.60 


24.40 


2 OO 


:; mi 


11.00 


71 20 


13.30 


1.50 


2 50 


27 60 


56 30 


11.70 


1.90 



Vegetables: 

Asparagus 

Beans (Lima) 

Beans (String). . . . 

Beets (Red) 

Beets (Sugar) 

Cabbage 

Carrot 

Collards 

Celery 

Corn (Green) 

Corn (Sweet) 

Cowpea 

Cauliflower 

Cucumbers 

Eggplant 

Kohl-rabi 

Lettuce 

Musbrooms 

Onions 

Parsnips 

Okra 

Pumpkins 

Radishes 

Potatoes (Irish). . 
Potatoes (Sweet). 
Peas (Green). . 

Bhubarb 

Spinach 

Squashes 

Buta-baga 

Tomatoes 

Turnips 

Fruits : 

Apples 

Apricots 

Bananas 

Blackberries 

Cherries 

Cranberries 

(4 rapes 

Muskmelons 

Lemons 

Oranges 

Pears 

Persimmons 

Pineapples 

Plums 

Pomegranates.. . 

Baspberries 

Strawberries .... 

Watermelons 

Whortleberries. . 

Nuts: 

Almonds 

Butternuts 
Chestnuts. 
Cocoanuts (Flesh 
Cocoanuts (Milk) 

Filberts 

Hickorynuts ... . 

Peanuts 

Pecans 

Walnuts (Black) 



USEFUL TABLES AXD FORMULAE. 



649 



Distances Apart for Planting Fruits in Commercial Plantations (Year Book 
Department of Agriculture, 1897) : 

Apple 40 x 40 

33x33 
32x16 

Apple (dwarf) 15 x 15 

10x10 

Pear 24 x 24 

20 x20 
16 x 16 

Pear (dwarf) 16 x 16 

12x12 

Quince 16 x 16 

12 x 12 

Apricots 30 x 30 

25 x 25 
20x20 

Cherries ( sweet) 30 x 30 

24x24 
20x20 

Cherries ( sour) 20 x 20 

16x16 

Peach 20 x 20 

20x16 
18x18 
13x13 

Plum 20 x 20 

18 x 18 
16x16 

Fig 40 x 40 

20x20 

Kaki 20 x 20 

Olive 25 x 25 

20 x20 

Orange and lemon 30 x 30 

25x25 

Grape 8 x 10 

6x 8 

Almond 24 x 24 

20x20 

Chestnut 40 x 40 

30 x 30 
20 x 20 

Pecan 50 x 50 

40x40 



650 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



Walnut 50 x 50 

40x40 

Blackberries 6x 8 

6x 6 

Raspberries 6x 4 

Currants and gooseberries 6x 8 

Strawberries lx 4 

1x3 
1 x 1 

Cranberries 2x 2 

The distance suitable for fruit trees and plants in commercial plan- 
tations varies considerably in different regions. The more important 
factors in determining the proper distance for any given species are 
the fertility of the soil, the supply of soil moisture, the habit of growth 
and relative vigor of the varieties, and the necessity of providing suffi- 
cient space for operating spraying machinery in combating insects and 
fungi. Observation of local practice affords the safest guide in doubt- 
ful cases. 



Time When seal Should Sprout. 

Days. 

Bean 5—10 

Beet 7—10 

Cabbage 5—10 

Carrot 12—18 

Cauliflower 5—10 

Celery 10—20 

Corn 5—8 

Cucumber 6 — 8 

Endive 6—10 



Days. 

Lettuce 5 — 10 

Onion 6—8 

Pea 7—10 

Parsnip 6—10 

Pepper 10—20 

Radish 9—14 

Salsify 3—6 

Tomato 7—12 

Turnip 6—12 



Injurious Temperatures. 

(W W. Hammon in Weather Bureau Bulletin 23.) 

Table of temperatures at which the following plants are liable to re- 
ceive injury from frost, compiled from information received from horti- 
culturists, orchardists, and gardeners throughout the entire Pacific 
coast 



USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULAE. 



651 



The temperatures given are, as nearly as possible, those of the air 
in contact with the plant itself. 



Plants or Fruits. 







+i 










0) 














t* 


a 




o 








b£ 


ki 

v 
A 


3 





0) 


-a 


£1 



















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M 


M 


1-1 



Plants or Fruits. 



Almonds 

Apples 

Apricots 

Asparagus 
Bananas 


o 

28 
•27 
30 
29 
31 


30 
29 
31 
29 
31 
20 
31 

32 




30 
30 
32 
29 
32 




23 
26 
30 
26 
3L 








Beets 

Cabbage 

Cantaloupes 


32 




25 
15-27 
30-31 
20-27 










28 


Cucumbers 

C y m 1 i n g s or 

squash 

Flowers* 

Grapes 

Grape fruit 


31 

31 
31 
31 
30 
30 


31 

31 

31 
31 
31 
31 


31 

31 

31 
30 
31 
31 


32 

30 
30 

28 
28 
28 




1 '.'-US 


Mandarins 


31 
31 


31 


31 


28 


Okra 






31 


Olives 


30 


31 


31 


(118 
i §2 1 



Onions 

Oranges+ 

Parsnips 

Peaches 

Pears 

Peas 

Plums 

Potatoes : 

Irish 

Sweet 

Prunes. 

Radishes 

.Shrubs, roses, or 

trees 

Spinach 

Strawberries. . 

Tangerines 

Tomatoes 

Turnips 

Watermelons. . 

Wheat 

Walnuts, English 



_, s .;-._, 



29 
\ 126 
($29 
27 
29 
28 
25 
29 

31 
31 
29 
25 

30-26 

21 
30 

28 

31 

26 

28-31 



28 



* Depends on variety, f Injured at 2° higher if continued four to six hours. % Ripe. 
$Green. 

GARDEN CALENDAR. 

Upper Sections. — Virginia, North Carolina. North Georgia, North 
Alabama, Tennessee. 

Middle Sections. — Lower South Carolina, South Georgia, Middle and 
South Alabama, Mississippi. 

Southern Sections. — Southern Louisiana and Florida. 

January — Upper Sections. — Prepare hot-beds and cold frames and sow 
seeds of Cauliflower, Cabbage, Beets, Lettuce, Onions, Radishes. 
Prepare land for Potatoes. 

Middle Sections. — Land made ready for English Peas and Irish 
Potatoes; later in the month sow Peas in open ground, also Rad- 
ishes. 

Southern Sections. — Sow Carrots, Beets, Leeks, Mustard, early 
Radishes, and Turnips. Sow in a frame Cabbage, Broccoli, Cauli- 
flower, Endive, Kohl-rabi, Lettuce. Celery, Parsley, and Cress. 
In the hot-bed sow Eggplants, Pepper, and Tomatoes for early 



652 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 

transplanting. Sow Cucumber seeds in pots for forcing, transplant 
into hot-beds after the appearance of the third leaf. Plant Peas 
of the marrow fat and black-eyed varieties. Set out Cabbage plants 
sown in November. Onions should be transplanted early in this 
month, so that the bulbs will form soon. 

February — Upper Sections. — Sow in hot-beds Cabbage, Cauliflower, 
Beets, Lettuce, Onions, Radishes, Eggplants, Pepper, and Toma- 
toes. Sow in open ground the latter part of the month Beets, Car- 
rots, Celery, Kale, Parsley, Radishes. Set out Onion sets, Horse 
Radish, hardy Lettuce plants. 

Middle Section*. — The early planting of Potatoes may now be ac- 
complished. Sow early English Peas. The seeds mentioned in 
January for the Southern sections may be sown at this time for 
the Middle section. 

Southern Section*. — Sow Beets, Carrots, Cabbage, Cauliflower, 
Leeks, Lettuce, Mustard, Parsnips, Kohl-rabi, the early varieties of 
Turnips and Radishes. Transplant Cabbage, Cauliflower. Divide 
Shallots and set out. Plant all varieties of Peas. Sow Aspa- 
ragus seeds or plant the roots. Give plenty of air during the fair 
days to the hot-beds to prevent the plants from becoming too ten- 
der before transplanting. Towards the close of the month, if the 
weather will permit, early Corn can be planted and bush Beans. 
Melons and Squashes will do well if planted this month and pro- 
tected by some covering against the cool nights. 

March — Upper Sections. — All kinds of hardy seeds may now be placed 
in the ground, such as Cauliflower, early Cabbage, Celery, Aspara- 
gus, Carrots, Leeks, Lettuce, Parsley, Parsnips, Onions, Peas, 
and Salsify. Sow under glass Eggplants, Pepper, and Tomatoes. 
Plant Irish Potatoes, Onion sets, Asparagus roots, and set out 
Cauliflower, Cabbage, and Lettuce plants from the hot-beds, after 
hardening. Prepare the land for early planting of Melons and 
Squashes. 

Middle Sections. — All kinds of hardy seeds may be sown. Cauli- 
flower and Cabbage plants should be transplanted. Shallots divided 
and set out. Sow Celery for seasoning, and also Parsley and Cress, 
Kohl-rabi and Turnips. Plant all varieties of Peas, and sow 
Asparagus or plant the roots, if not placed in the ground previously. 
As soon as the weather is favorable plant bush Beans, Cucumbers, 
Squash, and Melons, but protect the tender plants as they come up 
by the use of bell glasses or small boxes covered with glass. Near 
the close of the month plant Sweet or Sugar Corn, and also early 
Corn for the market. 

Southern Sections. — This is the month for sowing bush and pole 
Beans, and, towards the end of the month, plant Lima Beans; 
plant, also, Cucumbers, Leeks, Mustard, Lettuce, Celery for cutting. 



USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULAE. 



653 



Parsley, Melons, Okra. Early varieties of Peas may be still planted. 
Set out, the last of the month, Tomatoes, Eggplants, and Peppers; 
plant Sweet Corn for continued crop. 

April — Upper Sections. — Sow in the open ground Cabbage, Tomatoes, 
and Lettuce, and plant early Irish Potatoes. Sow the seeds of 
Beets, Carrots, Asparagus, Artichokes, Celery, Onions, Parsnips, 
Radishes, Parsley, Salsify, Spring Kale. Set out Cabbage plants, 
Asparagus roots, and Onion sets. Plant early Corn, bed Sweet 
Potatoes, plant Peas, Snap Beans, and, towards the end of the 
month, Cantaloupes, Cucumbers, Melons, Squashes, and Strawberry 
plants. 

Middle Sections. — Plant all varieties of bush and pole Beans, and, 
later in the month, Lima Beans also. Plant Cucumbers, Squashes, 
Okra, Early Peas; sow Lettuce, Celery for cutting, Radishes, 
Mustard, Carrots, Parsley; set out Eggplants, Tomatoes, and Pep- 
pers in the open ground. 

Southern Sections. — Sow all kinds of Beans, Carrots, Cucumbers, 
Corn, Celery for cutting, Endive, Lettuce, Mustards, Melons, Pars- 
ley, Radishes, Squashes. Cauliflower may be sown this month, as 
it takes some time to mature, especially the Italian varieties. 

May — Upper Sections. — Most garden seeds can be sown this month, 
such as Carrots, pole and snap Beans, Lima Beans, Corn, Cucum- 
bers, Cantaloupes, late Cabbage seeds for setting out for fall use, 
Tomatoes, Salsify, Peas, Okra, Squashes, Pumpkins, Sweet Potato, 
and Eggplants. 

Mid lie Sections. — Such kinds of garden seeds as Melons, Okra, 
Lima Beans, and Corn may be safely planted during this month. 
Set out Sweet Potatoes. 

Southern Sections. — With the exception of Okra, the white and 
yellow summer Radishes and Endive, very few vegetable seeds 
are sown during this month. If the large white Celery is sown 
at this time it will be necessary to shade and water during the 
dry, warm weather. Special care in cultivation must be taken of 
the growing crops. Melons, Cucumbers. Squashes may be planted 
when the Onions and Potatoes are taken up. 

June — Upper Sections. — Cabbage, Eggplants, Peppers, Potatoes, and 
Tomato plants may be set out during this month. Sow late Cab- 
bage and Cauliflower for winter use Plant late Potatoes for the 
winter. Plant Cantaloupes, Watermelons, Cucumbers, Squashes, 
Pumpkins, Sweet Corn, and Snap Beans. 

Middle Sections. — Plant pole and snap Beans, Sweet Corn, Cucum- 
bers for pickling, Cabbage for fall crop; Celery seed also sown now. 

Southern Sections. — The growing crops will require all the atten- 
tion of the gardener, and very few seeds will be sown during the 



654 



GAttDE-NIXG FOK THE SOUTH. 



month. Corn may be planted for the late supply of roasting ears; 
some varieties of the hardy, prolific Beans and summer Radishes 
may be sown at this time; towards the end of the month Tomato 
seeds may be put in for the late crop. Plant Sweet Potato Vines. 

Ji i.v — Upper Sections. — Snap Beans and Sugar Corn may be planted 
for succession crops. Set out late Cabbage plants for winter use; 
also Celery plants. Sow Ruta Baga; plant Cucumbers for pickling 
and table use, and late Potatoes for winter. 

Middle Seel ions. — Plant Ruta Bagas, Turnips, Endive, Cauli- 
flower, Cabbage, Celery for early crop. Give the vegetables care- 
ful attention in cultivation to destroy all weeds and keep the 
ground in a loose, open condition for the proper absorption of 
moisture from the atmosphere and the rapid development of the 
plants. 

Southern Sections. — Sow late Tomatoes and plant Corn for a late 
crop. Towards the end of the month bush Beans may be planted. 
In the middle of the month sow Cabbage seeds for winter use. 
Still plant Sweet Potato Vines. 

August — Upper Sections. — Continue planting Snap Beans for table use. 
If Cabbage and Celery plants have not been planted, set these out 
early in the month and water the Celery regularly, as this is a 
dry month. Lettuce for fall heading may be planted now. All 
kinds of Turnip seeds may be sown. 

Middle Sections. — Set out fall Cabbage; sow Kale, Ruta Baga, and 
Turnip seeds; English Peas and Snap Beans for fall use may be 
sown during this month; the main crop of Celery must be set out 
at this time. Lettuce sown under glass for winter use will be a 
valuable crop. 

Southern Sections. — Bush Beans, Peas, and late Cabb ge will be 
planted during this month; also, Kale and Brussels Sprouts. 
During the first of the month sow Cauliflower seeds. Sow White 
Strasburg Radish and Yellow Turnips, and near the end of the 
month the red varieties of Turnips may be sown. This is the time 
for sowing Celery, and some Celery plants may be set out at this 
time if they are watered and shaded. Set out Tomato and Shallot 
plants for late crops Kohl-rabi and Ruta Baga seeds may be 
sown. 

September — Upper Sections. — Sow Onion seed. Put out Onion sets. Sow 
winter Radish, Kale, Spinach, Turnips. 

Middle Sections. — Sow Kale for winter use; sow Spinach in drills; 
plant Onion sets; sow broadcast Turnip seeds for salad, and sow 
Radishes for late crop. 

Southern Sections. — Most of the seeds mentioned for August can 
also be sown during this month, in addition to Parsley, Beets, 



USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULAE. 655 

Carrots, early varieties of Peas, Lettuce, and Corn Salad. Trans- 
plant Celery in the ditches prepared for it, and set out Cabbage 
and Cauliflower plants. Begin sowing Creole Onions after the 
middle of the month. 

October — Upper Section*. — Sow Kale, Mustard, Turnips for salad, 
Spinach, and Lettuce. Put out Onion sets. 

Middle Sections. — Sow Kale and winter Spinach. Transplant 
Celery to the trenches prepared for it; plant Onion sets and Shal- 
lots. Plant all kinds of Radishes, Carrots, Salsify, Beets, Parsley, 
Endive, Kohl-rabi; Corn Salad and Turnips may be sown this 
month. Sow Cabbage and Cauliflower in frames. 

Southern Sections. — Towards the end of the month the Marrow 
Fat and Black-Eyed Peas and English Windsor Beans may be 
planted. Sow Cabbage, Cauliflower. Brussels Sprouts, Carrots, 
Beets, Parsley, Parsnips, Radishes, Spinach, and Lettuce. Near 
the end of the month begin earthing up the Celery plants and 
water frequently. 

November — Upper Sections. — Sow Lettuce and early varieties of Cab- 
bage seeds in cold frames, leaving off the glass to harden the 
plants. 

Middle Sections. — The first of the month sow Carrots and protect 
with litter. Sow Cabbage and Cauliflower in frames. 

Southern Sections. — Sow all varieties of winter vegetables. For 
spring heading sow late flat Dutch and Drumhead Cabbage; late 
varieties of Peas will also do well this month. Prepare hot-beds 
for Cucumber seeds. 

December — Upper Sections. — Hot-beds and green-houses must be used 
for vegetable seeds during this month. Very little can be done in 
the open ground. 

Middle Sections. — The same is true with this portion of the 
South. December is generally a severe month for tender plants, 
and the hot-beds and green-houses must be depended upon for all 
character of sowing. 

Southern Sections. — Carrots, early Cabbage, Endive, Lettuce, and 
Radishes may be sown during this month in the far Southern sec- 
tions. Early Erfurt Cauliflower may be sown, and the Marrow 
Fat and late varieties of Peas. Prepare the ground for planting 
fruit trees. Prune fruit trees. 



656 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



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USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULAE. 659 

Weights, and Measures. 
Troy Weight— 

24 grains 1 pennyweight. 

20 pennyweights 1 ounce. 

12 ounces 1 pound. 

Apothecaries' Weight — 

20 grains 1 scruple. 

3 scruples 1 drachm. 

8 drachms 1 ounce. 

12 ounces 1 pound. 

Avoirdupois Weight — 

27.34 grains 1 drachm. 

16 drachms 1 ounce. 

16 ounces 1 pound. 

Long Measure — 

12 inches 1 foot. 

3 feet 1 yard. 

5| yards 1 rod, pole or perch. 

40 rods 1 furlong. 

8 furlongs 1 statute or land mile. 

3 miles 1 league. 

Square or Land Measure — 

144 square inches 1 square foot. 

9 square feet 1 square yard. 

30g square yards 1 square rod. 

40 square rods 1 rood. 

4 roods 1 acre. 

640 acres 1 square mile. 

Liquid Measure — 

4 gills 1 pint — 28.875 cubic inches. 

2 pints 1 quart — 57.75 cubic inches. 

4 quarts 1 gallon — 231 cubic inches. 

63 gallons 1 hogshead. 

2 hogsheads 1 pipe or butt. 

2 pipes 1 tun. 

Dry Measure — 

2 pints 1 quart. 

4 quarts 1 gallon. 

2 gallons 1 peck. 

4 pecks 1 struck bushel. 



660 



GARDENING EOK THE SOUTH. 



The Metric System of \\< ights and Measures. 
Metric Units in English Equivalents: 



Inches. 

Centimeter 0.393685 

Decimeter 3.93685 

Meter 39.3685 

Decameter 393.685 

Hectometer 



Kilometer . 
Myriameter 



Feet. 
0.032807 
0.328071 
3.280711 
32.8071 
328.071 
3280.71 
32807.1 



Yards. Miles. 



0.109357 

1.09363 

10.9357 

109.357 0.0621347 



1093.57 
10935.7 



0.6213466 
6.213466 



Are— 154988 sq. in., 1076.4 sq. ft, 119.60 sq. yds., 0.0247 acres. 
Hectare— 107.64 sq. ft., 11.960 sq. yds., 2.471 acres. 
Liter— 33.8 fluid ounces, 1.0567 liquid quarts, 0.02838 bushels. 
Gram— 15.43234 grains, 0.03527 ounces avoid., 0.0022 lbs. avoid. 
Kilogram — 2.2 lbs. avoid. 

Foot — 0.3048 meters, 3.048 decimeters, 30.48 centimeters. 

Mile— 1609.344 meters, 1609 kilometers. 

Acre— 40.4685 ares, 0.4046 hectare. 

Gallon— 3.7854 liters. 

Pound — 0.4535 kilogram, 4.535 hectograms. 

Ton (2,000 lbs.)— 907.1 kilograms, 0.9071 tonne. 

Bushel— 35.237 liters. 

A cubic foot is equal to — 
1728 cubic inches. 

0.8036 struck bushels of 2150.42 cubic inches. 

3.2143 pecks. 

7.4805 liquid gallons of 231 cubic inches. 

6.4285 dry gallons. 
29.922 liquid quarts. 
25.714 dry quarts. 
59.844 liquid pints. 
51.428 dry pints. 

0.2667 barrel of three struck bushels. 

0.2375 liquid barrel of 31J gallons. 



662 



GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 



Legal Weight of a 



Apples 

Dried 

Beans, Castor.. . . 
White. .. 

Beets 

Blackberries 

Carrots 

Cherries 

Corn, Sweet 

Cranberries 

Currants 

Gooseberries 

Grapes 

Onions 

" Sets 

" Tops 

Parsnips 

Peaches 

'• Dried... . 

" Pared... 

Pears 

Peas 

" Ground 

Plums, Dried 

Potatoes, Irish. . 

" Sweet. 

Pop-Corn 

Quinces 

Raspberries 

Rutabagas 

Strawberries 

Turnips 



57 



60 
60 



55 















o 


oj 






o 


o3 


<h 








S3 


c3 


o 


0J 


u 


P 



60 



60 



03 

a 


e3 - 


03 

a 

TSl 


a 

3 


a 

3 
"3 




5 


■a 


O 


03 


G 
u 




c3 


c3 


" 


^ 


W 


Hi 


§ 


<\ 



55 



33 

40 

10 

40 

57 

'28 

48 
33 
33 



48 
32 



52 



57 



62 



60 



USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULAE. 



063 



Bushel in Each State.* 



a 

03 

be 
2 


33 

O 
to 

0) 

a 

G 


ft 

ft 

en 

to 

to 

rjl 

3 


Eh 

o 
en 


GO 
03 

,0 


o3 
•V 
oj 
> 

'A 


aj 

u 

ft 
o3 

w 

525 


1-5 
OJ 


New York. 
North Carolina. 
Ohio. 


Oregon. 
Pennsylvania. 
Rhode Island. 


oi 
"o 

o3 

o 

3 
O 

m 


a, 

0) 
to 
to 


to 

si 
M 
a> 


a 

o 

£ 


a 

'bh 


.2 
a 

'So 

> 

to 
® 


'to 

a 



o 


CO* 

a 
I* 

PS 




28 
46 
Hi) 
60 




















45 
28 


















57 
28 
46 
60 
50 


56 


•?,?, 




24 
46 
60 

60 


24 
46 
60 






25 


22 
46 
62 
60 




22 
46 
60 
60 


24 
46 
60 




26 
46 
60 


26 


28 


46 


28 


25 


24 


46 






46 


60 

fin 




60 


60 


60 


60 


60 


60 


60 








































































50 


























































































40 


33 




33 










33 




33 




















:;:: 


























































































































54 


56 




57 


57 
25 






57 


57 




56 




57 


50 


57 


56 


57 


54 


£6 




50 


57 


28 


28 




28 
33 








28 




25 




















2S 
44 


































































28 
28 


28 




33 
33 


33 






33 


32 

28 




36 


28 


28 




33 




28 




33 


33 


28 
28 


83 








45 






60 


60 












fiO 


60 




60 


60 


60 


60 


60 


60 


50 


60 




60 


60 




60 














28 












































60 
56 


60 




60 


60 
50 


60 


60 


(id 
54 


60 

55 




60 
50 


60 


56 
55 


60 


60 
50 


60 
50 


60 
55 


60 
55 


60 
56 


60 


60 
54 


60 
55 
















































































































































56 












































58 


55 




55 


55 








55 




56 




55 


50 






65 




56 


60 


42 


56 

















*Local usage sometimes varies from legal enactment. All States recognize the use of the 
standard United States bushel, without reference to weights of articles measured, and some 
States no longer legalize any other. 



66-A GARDENING EOK THE SOUTH. 



Every intelligent gardener should have some, if not all, of the fol- 
lowing books on the shelves of his library to guide him in the proper 
cultivation of his garden: 

Asparagus Culture, by Barnes and Robinson. 
American Fruit Culturist, by Thomas. 
Annals of Horticulture, by Bailey. 
American Pomological Society, Proceedings of. 
Apple Culture, Notes on, by Bailey. 

Bulletins of the States' Experiment Stations. (The name of each 
gardener should be on the mailing lists of these stations and 
the bulletins should be carefully read and filed for reference.) 

Bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture. Many 
valuable bulletins and circulars are issued each year by this 
department. 

Cauliflowers, by Brill. 

Celery for Profit, by Grenier. 

Cabbages and Cauliflower, How to Grow, by Gregory. 

— >- Draining for Profit and Health, by Waring. 
Drainage, Farm, by French. 
Dictionary of Gardening, by Nicholson. 
Drainage, Tile, by Chamberlain. 
Drainage, by Miles. 

Farm, Gardening and Seed Growing, by Thurber. 
First Principles of Agriculture, by Voorhees. 
Fruit Garden, by Barry. 

Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, by Downing. 
— Fertility of the Land, by Roberts. 
Fruit Growing Principles, by Bailey. 

Gardening for Profit, by Henderson. 

Gardening and Farm Notes, Market, by Landreth. 

Grape Growers' Guide, by Chorlton. 

Grape Training, by Bailey. 

Garden Making, by Bailey. 

Greenhouse Construction, by Taft. 

Grape Culturist, by Fuller. 

How Crops Feed, by Johnson. 
How Crops Grow, by Johnson. 
Handbook of Plants, by Henderson. 
Horticulturists' Rule Book, by Bailey. 



USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULAE. 665 

Injurious Insects of Farm and Garden, by Treat. 
Insects Injurious to Vegetation, by Harris. 
Insects, Manual for Study of, by Comstock. 
Insects Injurious to Fruits, by Saunders. 
Insects and Insecticides, by Weed. 

Landscape Gardening, by Elliott. 

Manures, Talk on, by Harris. 
Manures, A Treatise on, by Griffith. 
Mushrooms, How to Grow, by Falconer. 

Nursery Book, by Bailey. 
Nut Culturist, by Fuller. 

Olive, The, by Marvin. 

Onion Culture, The New, or Onions for Profit, by Grenier. 

Ornamental Gardening, by Long. 

Onion Raising, by Gregory. 

Pear Culture for Profit, by Quinn. 
Potato Culture, Sweet, by Fitz. 
Peach Culture, by Fulton. 
Propagation of Plants, by Fuller. 
Potato Culture, The New, by Carman. 
Potato Culture, by Terry. 

Success in Market Gardening, by Rawson. 
Spraying of Plants, by Lodeman. 
Soil, by King. 

Truck Farming in the South, by Oemler. 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Achras sapota 531 

Agaricus camprestris ....362, 363 

Altitun ascolonicum 422 

cepa 379 

fistilosum 381 

porrum 348 

sativum 342 

Sch&noprasum 322 

Almond 147, 456, 648, 649 

common 456 

cultivation 456 

pistache 457 

princess 457 

sultana 457 

Alternaria solani 166 

Amanita muscaria 366, 367 

phylloides 365, 366 

Ammonium sulphate 71 

Amygdalus communis 456 

Ananassa sativa 611 

Anasa tristis 141, 142 

.1 milium graveolens 448 

Angelica 444 

Anise 444 

Anisopteryx pofnetaria ...126, 127 

Anthensis nobilis 447 

Anthracnose 155, 156 

Aphis brassicoB 122 

gossypii 133 

Anona cherimolia 531 

muricata 531 

reticulata 531 

squamosa 531 

Apium graveolens 310 

var. napaceum 321 

Appelius, M 192 

Apple. .117, 118, 120, 127. 144. 

457, 648, 649 

Albemarle pippin 479 

Arkansas 458 

Baldwin 459 

Bachelor 459 

Ben Davis 459, 460 

Black twig 458 

Bough 459, 460 

Buckingham 459, 461 

Buff 461, 462 



PAGE. 

Buncombe 471 

Byers 459 

Camak's sweet 461, 462 

Carnation 463 

Carolina aromatic 463 

Crab 457 

Cullasaga 463 

Disharoon 465 

Early harvest 464, 465 

Early red 473 

Fall pippin 465 

Hall 465, 467 

Hockett's sweet 467 

Homony 477 

Horse 465, 466, 467 

Johnson's fine winter... 479 

Jonathan 467, 469 

Julian 466, 467 

Limbertwig 468, 469 

Maiden's blush 468, 469 

Mangum 469, 471 

•Margaret 470, 473 

Meigs 470, 471 

Mountain belle 471 

Nickajack 471, 473 

Oconee greening 472, 473 

Red astrachan 473,475 

Red fall pippin 471 

Red June 472, 473 

Red winter Pearmain... 471 

Romanite 474, 475 

Rome beauty 474, 475 

Shockley 475, 477 

Smokehouse 478 

Sops of wine 476, 477 

Stevenson 477 

Striped June 473 

Summer queen 476, 477 

Taunton 478 

Waddel's hall 477 

Watson 478 

Winesap 479 

White Juneating 478 

Yellow June 478 

Yellow New York pippin 479 

Yopp 479 

York Imperial 479 



(667) 



668 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Apples adapted to — 

Alabama 481 

Arkansas 481 

Florida 482 

Georgia 481 

Kentucky 481 

Mississippi 481 

North Carolina 481 

South Carolina 481 

Tennessee 481 

Texas 481 

Virginia 480 

Gathering the fruit 482 

Marketing 482 

Apricot... 147, 483, 535, 64S, 649 

Bungo 485 

Breda 485 

Dubois 484 

Early golden 484 

Hemskirke 485 

Hubbard 485 

Large early 484 

Moorpark 485 

Musch 485 

Orange 484 

Peach 484 

Royal 485 

Santa Fe 485 

Artichoke 188, 261 

Cultivation 262, 265 

Jerusalem 265 

Arachis hypogcea 343 

Arcliangelica officinalis 444 

Artemisia abrotanum 454 

absinthium 455 

dracunculus 431 

pontica 455 

Artotrogus debaryanus 158 

Ashes 48, 57 

Asparagus 82, 188, 266, 648 

Columbian mammoth . . 270 

Conover's colossal 270 

Cultivation 26/ 

Palmetto 270 

Marketing 271 

Asparagus officinalis 266 

Aspidiotus perniciosus 144 

Aspidiotus camellia) 145 

Juglans-regice 145 

Atkinson, G. F 26, 167, 361 

Atriplex hortensis 3S5 

Avocado pear 531 

Azotin 71 

Bacillus amylovorus 154 

Bailey. L. H 26, 508, 533, 621 



PAGE. 

Balm 188, 445 

Banana 486, 487, 648 

Baracoa 487 

Cavendish 487 

Dwarf 487 

Chinese 487 

Golden 487 

Hart's choice 487 

Horse 487 

Martinique 487 

Orinoco 487 

Marketing 488 

Barbarca vulgaris 329 

Basil ....188, 272 

Cultivation of 273 

Baskets 102 

Beans. 120, 134, 188, 274, 648, 650 

Algiers 276 

Black speckled 277 

Black-eyed wax 279 

Bunch 274 

Bush 274 

Burpee's bush 279 

Broad Windsor 275 

Carolina 274, 279 

Culture 275, 280 

Dark prolific 277 

Dutch case knife 2T6 

Dwarf 276 

Extra early refugee 279 

Early Mohawk 276 

Early Valentine 276 

English broad 274 

French kidney 276 

Henderson's bush 279 

London horticultural.... 277 

Newington wonder 276 

Royal kidney 276 

Long pod 275 

Lima 274, 279 

Mazagan 274 

Pole 271 

Sieva 274 

Snaps 274 

Types of 277 

Wardwell's kidney wax. 279 

Wax 276 

White prolific 277 

Marketing 283 

Beets.. 82, 118, 188, 284, 648, 650 

Bassano 284 

Culture 286 

Early eclipse 284 

Early long blood 284 

Extra early Egyptian... 284 
Extra early turnip 284 



INDEX. 



G69 



PAGE. 

Klein Wanzleben 285 

Lentz 285 

Long blood 284 

Mangel-Wurzel 285 

Sugar 285 

White 288 

Marketing 290 

Bene 446 

Berckmans, P. J 26, 34, 545 

Beta vulgaris 284 

cicla 284 

Bibliography 664 

Birds Ill 

Blackberry 4SS, 648, 649 

Dallas 490 

Early harvest 489 

Kittatinny 489 

Wilson's early 4S9 

.Marketing 490 

Blood, dried 71 

Bones 75 

Boneash 76 

Boneblack 76 

Bonemeal 76 

Boneset 446 

Borage 188. 416 

Borago officinalis 416 

Bordeaux mixture 184 

Borecole 290 

Culture 291 

Dwarf green curled 

Scotch 291 

Early curled Siberian 291 

Marketing 291 

Brassica alba 375 

Brassica napvs var oleifera. . . 413 

var escalenta 413 

nigra 375 

oleracea — 

var bullata -major 296 

var hot rids cauli flora. 292, 306 

var capilata 293 

var canlo rapa 348 

var fmbriata 290 

var gemmifera 292 

rap'i 436 

Broccoli 1SS, 292 

Marketing 292 

Br minis pisorum 150, 151 

obtectus 151 

quadri maculatus 151, 152 

Brussels sprouts 292 

Bryson, Miss Ann 465 

Budding 211 

Bulbs 197 

Bullace 503 



PAGE. 

Burnet 188 

Bushel, legal weight of 
(Table) 663 

Cabbage. 28, 82, 121, 122, 132, 

188, 293, 648, 650 

All seasons 296 

Curled savoy 296 

Culture 297 

Drumhead savoy 296 

Early drumhead 296 

Early flat Dutch 295 

Early Jersey Wakefield. 294 

Early Winningstadt 295 

Early York 296 

Express 296 

Flat Dutch 296 

Henderson's early sum- 
mer 295 

Improved Brunswick . . . 296 
Large late drumhead. . . . 296 

Preserving 302 

Premium flat Dutch 296 

Red Dutch 296 

Savoy 296 

Succession 296 

Marketing 803 

Cwoma nitens 155 

Calocasia esculenta 430 

Camak, James 21, 24 

Camomile 188 

Cantaloupe 358 

Acme 357 

Atlantic City 358 

Baltimore 358 

Culture 359 

Emerald green 358 

Gold Jenny 358 

Jenny Lind 358 

Pineapple 358 

Shippers' delight 359 

Marketing 361 

Ca psicu in 188, 394 

Caraway 188, 447 

Carbon bisulphide 184 

Carica papaya 531 

Carpocapsa pomonella 119 

Carrot 82, 188, 304, 648, 650 

Altringham 304 

Culture 305 

Early French short horn, 304 

Early horn 304 

Half long Danvers 305 

Long orange 305 

Marketing 306 

cnrum Carvi 447 



670 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Castanea dentata 539 

Japonica 539 

pumila 539 

suti ni 539 

•Cauliflower 28, 82, 122, 

123, 188, 306, 648, 650 

Culture 307 

Early Erfurt 307 

Snowball 307 

Marketing 310 

Celeriac 321 

Celeky. .82, 123, 188, 310, 648, 650 

Culture 313 

Giant paschal 311 

Giant white 313 

Golden heart 311 

Golden self bleaching, 

311, 319 

Marketing 320 

New culture 313 

Sandringham 313 

White plume 310 

Census report on cotton 55 

Verasus avium 491 

vulgaris 491 

Cercosponi apii 158 

Ceratocystis fimbriata 155 

Chamomile 447 

Charcoal 59 

Chards 264 

Cherimoya 531 

Cherokee rose 34, 36 

Cheery.... 118, 127, 132, 147, 

490, 648, 649 

Belle magnifique 494 

Bigarreau 491 

Blackheart 491 

Black tartarian 493, 494 

Downer's late 492 

Duke 491, 494 

Early Richmond (Kent- 
ish) 497 

Elton ...491, 492 

English Morello, 

169, 490, 491, 494, 495 

Heart 491 

Kirtland's Mary 493 

Late Kentish 497 

Mahaleb 491 

May duke 491, 495 

Mazzard 491 

Napoleon (Royal Ann), 

492, 493 

Plumstone Morello 495 

Reine Hortense 494 

Rockport 492 



page. 
Sweet Montmorency. 491, 495 

Marketing 497 

Chervil 188 

Chestnut, V. K 367 

Chestnut 537, 648, 649 

American 539 

Burbank's early 537 

Japan 539 

Marron de Lyon 539 

Spanish 539 

Chinese yam 335 

Chinquapin 539 

Chionaspis furfuirus 145, 147 

Chittenden, F. H 133 

Chives 322 

Culture 322 

Chrysobothris femorata 117 

Chrysophyllum ccenito 531 

( 'ichorium endivia 339 

Citron 555 

Lemon 555 

Lyman 5ti5 

Orange 555 

Citrullus vulgaris 440 

Citrus acida 555 

aurantium 549 

bigaradia 549 

decumana 555 

Japonica 555 

linonium 553 

medica 555 

tiobilis' 549 

trifoliata 34 

Cives 188 

Clary 448 

Cladosporiuni fulvum 154 

carpophilum 154 

Clisiocampa Americana 118 

Cocoanut 496, 497, 648 

Cocos nucifera 497 

Cold frames 88, 92 

Collards 648 

Composition vegetables and 

fruits (Table) 648 

Composts 67, 68 

Conotrachelus nenuphar 138 

Copper carbonate 184 

sulphate solution 184 

Coprinus atramentariits ..370, 371 

comatus 371 

Coriander 188, 448 

Coriandrum sativum 448 

Corn 120, 188, 323, 648, 650 

Adam's extra early 324 

Country gentleman or 
shoe-peg 324 



INDEX. 



671 



PAGE. 

Crossby's extra early 323 

Culture 324 

Dent 323 

Egyptian 324 

Flint 323 

Husk 323 

Marblehead 324 

Marketing 324 

Nonesuch 324 

Pop 323 

Roslyn hybrid 324 

Soft 323 

Stowell's evergreen 324 

Sugar 324 

Sweet 323 

Triumph 324 

Corn salau 188, 328 

Corylus avellana 540 

Cottonseed meal 71 

Coville, F. V 26 

Cow Peas 328, 648 

Black 329 

Clay 329 

Crowder 329 

Large lady 329 

Mush 329 

Red 329 

Ripper 329 

Rice 329 

Sugar 329 

Small lady 329 

Unknown 329 

Crates 102 

Crataegus pyracantha 34 

Cress, American 188, 329 

Garden 329 

Indian 377 

Winter 188, 329 

Crambe maratima 418 

Crossing and hybridizing. . . . 195 
Cucumber.. 126, 134, 140, 188, 

330, 648, 650 

Culture 331 

Early cluster 330 

Early frame 331 

Long green 331 

Thorburn's over-bearing, 331 

White spined 331 

Marketing 334 

Cucumis melo 357 

anguria 331 

sativus 330 

Oucurbita pepo 407 

melopepo 428 

Currant... 144, 147, 205, 497, 650 
Cherry 499 



PAGE. 

Fay 499 

Red Dutch 498 

White Dutch 498 

White grape 499 

Versailles 499 

Victoria 499 

Marketing 499 

Cuttings 203, 206 

Custard apple 531 

Cydonica sinensis 633 

vulgaris 631 

Cynara scolymus 261 

Daucus carota 304 

Desmia maculata 129 

Devil wood 544 

Dewberry 490 

Austin 490 

Downings 490 

Lucretia 490 

Stubbs 490 

Marketing 490 

Diabrotica vittata 125 

Diaspis lanatus 145 

Diospyros Kaki 605 

I irginiana 600 

Dioscorea batatas 335 

alata 337 

satira 337 

aculeata 337 

Dill 448 

Diseases (see Plant Diseases). 

DorypJiora decemlineata 126 

Dolichos 274 

Drainage 46 

Du Breuil, M 222, 231 



Earle, F. S 26 

Eggplant 151, 188, 337, 648 

Black Pekin 338 

Culture 338 

Improved N. Y. purple.. 338 

Long purple 337 

Marketing 339 

Elecampane 449 

Elliott, Bishop 21 

Entomosporium maculatum... 159 

Endive 188, 339, 650 

Broad leaved Batavian.. 340 

Culture 340 

Long green curled 340 

Epicaute vittata 118 

Eriobotryta Japonica 529 

Eschallot 422 

Eugenia jumbos 531 



672 



INDEX. 



FACIE. 

Eupatorium perfoliaturn 445 

Exanthema 172 

Exoascus deformans 159 

pruni 159 

Faba vulgaris (see Vicia). 

Falconer, Wm 361 

Fencing 34 

Fennel 188, 449 

Fertilizers 51 

Fidio viticida 127, 128 

Fig 132, 499, 649 

Black Ischia 502 

Blue Genoa 501 

Brown Turkey 501 

Brunswick 500 

Celestial 501 

Common white 501 

Green Ischia 502 

Lemon 501 

White. Ischia 502 

Marketing 502 

Plats carica 499 

Filberts 540, 648 

Cosford 540 

Lambert 540 

Purple 540 

White 540 

Fish, dried 71 

Faeniculum vulgare 449 

Forwarding early crops 86 

Frost protection 17, 254 

Fragaria 637 

Fruits 456 

Fungi 107 

External 107 

Local 107 

Fungous disease 107 

External 107 

Local or penetrating.... 107 

Fungicides 184 

Fusicladium dendriticum .... 162 

Garden 27 

Aspect 28 

Form of 27, 30 

Inclination 28 

Laying out 32 

Plan of 31, 33 

Profits of 85 

Situation of 27 

Size of 30 

Galloway, B. T 164 

Garden calendar 651 

Garlic 188, 342 

Gherkin 331 



rwriE. 

Gooseberry 147,205, 502 

Champion 503 

Chautauqua 503 

Downing's seedling 503 

Houghton's seedling .... 503 

Pale red 503 

Red jacket 503 

Marketing 503 

Grafting 211, 215 

Cleft 218 

Inarching 220 

Mode and time 216 

Root 219 

Splice 217 

Whip 217 

Grafting wax 216 

Grape fruit 555 

Granadilla 531 

Grapks 130, 503, 648 

Agawan 514 

Arbor system 512 

Berckmans 514 

Bertrand 514, 516 

Brighton 514, 516, 524 

Brilliant 514, 518, 519 

Catawba b0§, 514, 516 

Caywood system 511 

Champion 514 

Clinton 514. 516 

Concord 514, 516 

Cynthiana 514, 516 

Delaware... 514, 516. 525, 526 

Diana 514. 516 

Elvira 514, 516 

Fertilizers for 506 

Flowers 514 

Gcetha 514 

Green Mountain 514,525 

Hartford 514 

Herbemont 514, 516, 522 

Horizontal system 512 

Ives 514, 516 

Kniffin system 511 

Lenoir 514, 516 

Lindley 514 

Missouri 514, 516 

Moore's diamond. 51 4, 516, 520 

Moore's early 514 

Niagara... 515, 516, 518, 520 

Noah 516 

Norton 515, 516 

Perkins 515, 516 

Peter Wylie 515 

Salem 515 

Scuppernong 503, 515, 

516, 517 



INDEX. 



673 



PAGE. 

Training and pruning... 507 

Triumph 515 

Tender pulp 515 

Thomas 515, 516 

Varieties suited to sec- 
tions 514 

Warren 522 

Wilder 515 

Winchell 525 

Wine 516 

Worden 515 

Marketing 525 

Green, E. C 315 

Green, Gen. Nathaniel 545 

Greenhouses 94, 95 

Ground nut 343 

Ground pea 343, 648 

Culture 344 

Georgia 344 

North Carolina 344 

Spanish 343, 344 

Tennessee White 344 

Virginia 344 

Marketing 345 

Guano 77 

Guavas 527 

Apple 527 

Cattley 527 

Chinese 527 

Common 527 

Mexican 527 

Strawberry 527 

White winter 527 

Glycyrrhiza glabra 451 

Gypsum 58 

Hair 71 

Hares 113 

Halsted, B. D 157 

Hammon, W. W 650 

Haltica chalybea 130 

Haven, O. P 528 

Hedge 35 

Helianthus tuberosus 265 

Heliothis armigera 120 

Henderson, Peter 26, 95, 313 

Herbs 443 

Heterodera radicola 152 

Hibiscus esculentus 378 

Hibiscus sabdariffa 424, 531 

Bicoria ovata 540 

pecan 541 

Hilgard, Dr 55 

Hog plum 531 

Holly, American 37 

Hop , 347 

43 V 



PAGE. 

Horehound 450 

Horseradish 188, 345 

Hot-beds 88 

Howard, Mr 146 

Humphray, J. E 170 

Hamulus lupulns 347 

Hybridizing 195 

Hyssop 188, 450 

Hyssopus officinalis ... 450 

Implements 17 

Inarching 220 

Insects 107 

Angumois moth 112, 113 

Apple-tree tent caterpil- 
lar 118 

Apple root blight 116 

Apple root borer 117 

Apple worm 119 

Blister beetle 118 

Boll worm 120 

Cabbage worm 121, 123 

Cabbage louse 122 

Canker worm 126 

Classification of 108 

Codling moth 119 

Colorado potato beetle.. 126 

Corn worm 120 

Cucumber beetle 125 

Curculio 138 

Cut worm 124 

Defoliating 108 

Grape leaf folder 129 

Grapevine fidia 127 

Grapevine flea beetle.... 130 

Harlequin bug 131 

Horn worm 150 

June beetles 132 

Leaf-footed plant louse.. 133 

Melon louse 133 

Melon worm 134 

Nematode root galls 153 

Onion fly 136 

Oyster-shell bark louse.. 143 
Peach-tree borer ....134, 135 

Pea weevils 151 

Plum weevil 138 

Root feeding 108 

San Jose scale 145, 148 

Sap sucking 108 

Squash bug 141 

Squash vine borer 139 

Tobacco worm 150 

Tomato worm 150 

Turnip flea beetle 141 

Weevils 151 

Woolly aphis 114, 115 



674 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Insecticides 184 

JiuiIii helemum 449 

Ipomaia batatas 401 

Jamaica sorrel 531 

Japan medlar 529 

Japan persimmon (see Per- 
simmon). 
Japan plum (see Plum). 

Jerusalem articnoke 188 

Jenkins, J. C 21 

Johnson & Stokes 26 

Juglans regia 542 

cineria 543 

nigra 543 

Sieboldiana 543 

Kainit 70 

Kale (see Sea Kale). 

Kerosene emulsion 124 

Kerowater 184, 185 

Kin kans 555 

Knapsack sprayer 177 

Kohlrabi 348, 648 

Kcethen, E. L 258 

Kumquat 555 

Marumi 557 

Nagami 557 

Lachnosterna fusca 132 

Lwstadia Bidwelli 163 

Lactura sativa 352 

Land, amount of (Table) 647 

Lavender 188, 451 

Lavendula vera 451 

Layering 200 

Leaf mould 62 

Leek 188, 348 

Culture 349 

Scotch champion 349 

Land on clay 349 

Large Rouen 349 

Marketing 351 

Leggett's powder gun 176 

Lemon 546, 553, 646, 649 

Belair 555 

Eureka 555 

Genoa 555 

Imperial 555 

Japan hardy 34 

Sicily 555 

Villa Franca 555 

Lens esculenta 351 

Lentil 188, 351 

Lepidium sativum 329 

Lcptoglo88U8 phyllopus 133 



PAGE. 

Lettuce 28, 82, 123, 188, 

352, 648, 650 

Brown Dutch 353 

Boston market 353 

Butter 352 

Culture 354 

Cos 352 

Deacon 353 

Early cabbage 352 

Grand Rapids 354 

Hanson 354 

Henderson's New York.. 353 
Mammoth Salamander... 353 

Royal cabbage 353 

White Paris Cos 353 

Marketing 357 

Ligustrum amurense 35 

Lime 48, 54, 112 

Lime and salt mixture 61 

Limes 555 

Mexican 555 

Persian 555 

Rangpur 555 

Tahiti 555 

Liquid manure 67 

Liquorice 451 

Lodeman, E. G 508 

London purple 184 

Loquat 529 

Lucwma mammosa 531 

Lycopersicum esculentum 432 

Macartney rose 34, 36 

Macrocentrus delicatus 120 

McGowan nozzle 179 

Mammee apple 531 

Mangifero Indica 529 

Mangoes 529 

Apple 531 

Apricot 531 

Common 531 

No. 11 531 

Margoramia hyalineata 134 

Manures 51, 56, 64, 66 

Marigold 188 

Marjoram 188, 357 

Pot 357 

Sweet 357 

Marl 58 

harruMum nilgare 450 

Martin, Logan 602 

Marketing 99 

Marlett, Mr 146 

Massey, W. F 95 

Meat scraps 71 

Medicinal herbs ,.... 443 



INDEX. 



675 



PAGE. 

Melissa officinalis 445 

Melon 126, 134, 188, 357 

Canteloupe 357 

Water 440 

Mentha piperita 452 

pulegium 452 

viridis 452 

Melicocca bijuba 531 

Melittia satyrini formis. . .139, 140 

Mice 113 

Mint 188, 452 

Moles 113 

Monilia fructiffena 164 

Moore, Jacob 520 

Moms alba 533 

var Tartarica 533 

var venosa 533 

Japonica 533 

latifolia 533 

nigra 533 

rubra 533 

var tomentosa 533 

Muck 61 

Mulching 241 

Mulberry 532 

Black 533 

Downing's ever-bearing. 533 
Hick's ever-bearing .... 534 

Lampasas 533 

Multicaulis 533 

Nervosa 533 

Red 533 

Russian 533 

Stubb's 534 

White 533 

Munson, T. V 16, 518 

Murgantia histrionica 131 

Muriate of potash 71 

Musa Cavendishii 487 

orientum 487 

paradissica 487 

sapu ntium 487 

Mushroom 361, 648 

Common 363 

Culture 371 

Deadly amanita 366 

Fly amanita 366 

Ink cup 371 

Shaggy 371 

Muscadine 503 

Muskmelon 140, 357 

Mustard 132, 188, 375 

Black 375 

White 375 

Mytilaspis pomorum 143 



PAGE. 

Nasturtium armoracia 188, 345 

officinalis 440 

Nasturtium 377 

NECTARINES 535 

Boston 536 

Downton 536 

Early violet 536 

Elruge 536 

New white 536 

Stanwick 536 

Night soil 66 

Nitrate of potash 71 

Nitrate of soda 70, 71 

Nitrogen 70 

Nozzle, Vermorel 178 

McGowan 179 

Nuts 536 

Ocymum basilicum 272 

mi ni in ii m 272 

Oedema 166, 167 

Okra 188, 378, 648 

Olives 544, 649 

Nevadillo Blanco 545 

Picholine 546 

Cultivation 544 

Olea Americana r>44 

Europea 544 

Oleomargarine refuse 71 

Onions 82, 188, 379, 648, 650 

Culture 381 

Extra early red 380 

Giant rocca 380 

Large red Wethersfield. . 380 

Potato 380 

Prize taker 380 

Silver skinned 379 

Southport white globe.. 380 

Red Bermuda 379 

Top 381 

Tree 381 

Welsh 381 

White Bermuda 379 

White queen 380 

Yellow Strasburgh 379 

Yellow Danvers 379 

Marketing 385 

New culture 381 

Oospora scabies 167 

Orach 385 

Oranges 16, 133, 134, 546, 

648, 649 

Alligator 546 

Bitter sweet 549 

Bitter Seville 548 

Mandarins 549 



676 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Phillip's bitter sweet 549 

Satsuma 550 

Sweet 549 

Bessie 550 

Boone 550, 553 

Centennial 550, 553 

Double imperial navel, 550 

Du Roi 550, 553 

Early oblong 550 

Enterprise seedless 

550, 553 

Foster 550 

Hart's late 551, 553 

Higley's late 551 

Homosassa 551, 553 

Imperial blood 551 

Kid Glove 550 

Jaffa 551, 553 

King 551, 553 

Majorca 551, 553 

Maltese blood 551 

Maltese egg 551 

Maltese oval 551, 553 

May's best 551 

Navel 553 

Nonpareil 551, 553 

Old vini 551 

Paper rind 551 

Parson Brown ....551, 553 

Pineapple 551, 553 

Sanguinea 551 

St. Michael's blood 551 

Sweet Seville 551, 553 

Tangerine 548, 550 

Valencia late 551 

Vinous 551 

Washington navel 

(Bahia) 551 

Wild 547, 548 

Marketing 557 

Origanum marjorana 357 

onites 357 

Osage orange 34, 147 

Otaheite 531 

Packing 99 

Packing house 100 

Paris green 184 

Parsley 188, 386 

Champion moss 386 

Celery leaved 386 

Hamburg 386 

Market gardener's 386 

Parsnip 82, 188, 388, 648 

Pastinacea sativa 388 

Passiflora edulis 531 



PAGE. 

Pawpaw 530, 531 

Pea 82, 120, 188, 390, 648, 650 

Alaska 390, 391 

Alpha 390, 391 

American wonder. . .390, 391 

Culture 391 

Champion of England.. 390 

Daniel O'Rourke 390, 391 

Eclipse 390 

Horsforl 390 

Large white marrowfat. . 390 

. Market garden 390 

Premium gem 390, 391 

Pride of the market 390 

Sugar 391 

Tom Thumb 390, 391 

Yorkshire hero 390 

Marketing 394 

Peanut (see Ground Pea). 

Peach 132, 133..147, 557, 649 

Alexander 562 

Amelia 568 

Angel 563, 569 

Baldwin's late 567 

Bidwell's late 568 

Bidwell's early 568 

Beer's smock 568 

Cabler Indian 569 

Chinese cling 565 

Columbia 564 

Countess 569 

Crawford's early 564 

Crawford's late 564 

Cultivation of 559 

Dorothy, N 569 

Drying 559 

Eaton's golden 567 

Early cream 569 

Elberta 564 

Ever-bearing 566, 567 

Ferdinand 569 

Florida Crawford 569 

Foster 564 

George IV 563 

General Lee 568, 569 

Gibbons 569 

Grosse Mignonne 563 

Hale 563 

Honey 570 

Imperial 570 

Jewel 570 

Kerr Jessie 568 

Late admirable 565 

Late rareripe 565 

Lemon cling 565 

Maggie 570 



INDEX. 



677 



PAGE. 

Mountain rose 568 

Oldmixon cling 564 

Onderdonk 568, 570 

Pallas 570 

Peento 567, 570 

President 565 

Pruning 557 

River 563 

Sneed 568, 570 

St. John 568 

Stump 564 

Suber 570 

Taber 570 

Thurber 570 

Tillottson 563 

Triumph 564 

Victoria 570 

Waldo 568, 570 

York 563 

Suitable for different 

sections 569 

Marketing 570 

Pear.. 117, 120, 133, 134, 144, 

147, 570, 648, 649 

Cultivating 572 

Gathering the fruit 5vl 

Preserving fruit 571 

Propagating 572 

Pruning 573 

Quince Si,ock 597 

Oriental type 599 

Standard stock 598 

Suitable for different 

sections 599 

Varieties : 

Ananas d'ete 581 

Anjou 597 

Archangel 586, 597 

Bartlett 578, 579, 599 

Belle epine Dumas... 588 

Beurre d' Anjou 597 

Bloodgood 577, 578 

Bosc 575, 576 

Brandywine 580 

Clairgeau 585, 599 

Clapp's Favorite 599 

Columbia 590 

Doyenne, white ...580, 581 
Doyenne d'ete. 574, 575, 599 
Duchesse dAngouleme, 

583, 597 
Duchesse de Bordeau-. 588 
Easter Beurre. 593, 594, 599 

Endicott 597 

Flemish 599 



PAGE. 

Garber 598, 599 

Gifford 597 

Glout Morceau 588 

Henry the Fourth. 581, 582 

Howell 597, 598 

Jaminette 595 

Josephine de Malines, 

588. 589 

Kieffer 595, 596, 599 

Lawrence 592, 593, 599 

LeConte 594, 595, 599 

Louise (Bonne de Jer- 
sey) 575, 577 

Lucrative ....585, 586, 599 

Madeline 574 

Manning's Elizabeth.. 578 

Mikado 599 

Mme. Von Siebold 599 

Parsonage 589 

Passe Colmar 588 

Pound 591 

St. Germain 591 

Seckel 584, 585, 597 

Selleck 582, 583 

Smith 599 

Sterling 587 

Summer Doyenne 574 

Superfine 596, 597 

Van Assche 583, 584 

Virgalieu 580 

Winter Nelis..592, 593, 599 

Pecan 133. 147, 541, 648, 649 

Biloxi 542 

Centennial 542 

Colorado 542 

Louisiana 542 

Mexican 542 

Paper shell 542 

Pride of the Coast 542 

Stuart 542 

Texas paper shell 542 

Van Deman 542 

Pennyroyal 18S, 452 

PEPrER 394, 650 

Culture 394 

Bell 394 

Cayenne 394 

Large sweet Spanish.. 394 

Long 394 

Tomato 394 

Marketing 395 

Peppermint 452 

Pcrsira gratissima 531 

vulgaris 535, 537 



678 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Persimmon 147, 600, 648 

American: 

Daniel Boone 600, 601 

Early bearing 601, 602 

Early golden 601 

Golden gem 602, 603 

Hicks 603 

Kemper 604 

Kansas 604 

Marion 604 

Shoto 604 

Smeech 604 

Superior 603 

Japan 14, 605 

Costata 606, 607 

Hachiya 607 

Hyakume 607 

Okame 608 

Tanenashi 609 

Yeddoichi 609 

Yemon 609 

Zengi 610 

Marketing 610 

Propagating 604 

Peridromia saueia 124 

Petroselinum sativum 386 

Phaseolus Intuitu* 274 

multiflorus 274 

vulgaris 274 

PhorMa ceparium 136 

Phosphate of lime 73 

Insoluble 73 

Reverted 73, 74 

Rock 78 

Soluble 73, 74 

Phosphoric acid 72 

Phosphates 73 

Photinia Japonica 529 

PhyllantJius distichus 531 

Phyllotreta vittata 141,142 

Phytophthora infestans 171 

Pickers' tags 106 

Pieris monuste 121 

protodice 121 

rapce 121 

Pimpinella anisum 444 

Pimpha annulipes 120 

Pindar 343 

Pineapple 611, 648 

Black 611 

' Cayenne 611 

Egyptian queen 611 

Havana 611 

Pernambuco 611 

Porto Rico 611 

Red Spanish 611 



PAGE. 

Ripley queen 611 

Scarlet key 611 

Strawberry 611 

Fertilizers for 513 

Marketing 514 

Propagating 511 

Pinery 512 

Pipings 210 

Pisum sativum 390 

Pits 88, 93 

Plant diseases 107, 153 

Apple scab 161, 162 

Celery leaf blight 158 

Cherry rot 164 

Classification of , 108 

Damping off 158 

Die back of orange 172 

Fire blight 154 

Grape black rot 163 

Leaf blight 154, 159 

Lemon scab 173 

Orange blight 171 

Peach rosette 168 

Peach rot 164 

Peach-tree curl 159 

Peach yellows 168 

Plum black knot 169 

Plum pockets 169 

Plum rot 164 

Potato downy mildew.. 171 

Potato leaf blight 166 

Potato rot 171 

Potato scab 167 

Quince rot 164 

Red rust 155 

Sweet potato rot 155, 157 

Tomato leaf curl... 166, 167 
PlowrigMia morbosa ....169, 170 
Plum... 27, 131, 144, 147, 514, 

535, 648. 649 

Babcock 628 

Bingham 517 

Caddo chief 516, 628 

Chickasaw 484, 515, 516 

Columbia 517, 626 

Cumberland 516.628 

Damson 518, 626 

De Caradeuc 521. 628 

Duane purple 518, 626 

Golden beauty 515. 628 

Green gage 518, 626 

Imperial gage. 519. 520, 626 

Jefferson 518, 519, 626 

Lombard 519, 520, 626 

Lone star 516, 628 

Missouri 517 



INDEX. 



679 



PAGE. 

Newman 516, 626, 628 

Prince's yellow gage, 

519, 520, 627 

Purple egg 520 

Red magnum bonum.. 520 
River's early favorite. 521 
Washington... 520, 521, 627 
Wild goose... 5i7, 627, 628 
Yellow transparent, 

516, 628 

European group 516 

Mariana group 516 

Native group 516 

Japan 14, 622 

Abundance ...622, 626, 628 

Bailey 623 

Berckmans 623, 628 

Burbank..623, 624, 626, 628 
Chabot...622, 623, 625, 

626, 628 

Chase 622 

Georgeson 628, 629 

Hattanido 626 

Kelsey...624, 626, 627, 628 

Kerr 624, 628 

Louisiana 623, 626 

Normand 623, 624 

Red June 625, 627, 628 

Red negate... 625, 627, 628 

Satsuma 625, 627, 628 

Sweet Botan 623 

Yellow Japan 623 

Marketing 628 

Propagation and cultiva- 
tion 15 

Suitable for Alabama... 626 

Florida 628 

Georgia 626 

Louisiana 627 

Mississippi 627 

North Carolina 626 

South Carolina 626 

Tennessee 626 

Texas 627 

Virginia 626 

Plusia brassicw 123 

POMEGRANATE 630, 648 

Acid 630 

Dwarf 630 

Purple 630 

Sweet 630 

Violet 630 

Potash 69 

Potato 82, 120, 395 648 

Irish 118, 126, 133, 

151, 188, 395 



PAGE. 

Beauty of Hebron 396 

Burbank 396 

Carman No. 1 396 

Culture 396 

Early Essex 396 

Early rose 396 

Early Puritan 396 

Late beauty of Hebron, 396 

Pearl of Savoy 396 

Peerless 396 

Pride of the South 396 

Rochester 396 

Rural N. Yorker No. 2, 396 

Second crop 399 

Triumph 396 

Marketing 401 

Sweet 133, 18S, 401 

Barbadoes 401 

Bunch yam 401 

Bush or vmeless 401 

Culture 402 

Early goluen 401 

Georgia yam 401 

Hayman 401 

Jersey 401 

Pumpkin yam 401 

Red Brazilian 401 

Red Nansemond 401 

Southern queen 401 

Spanish yam 401 

Sugar (Creole) 401 

Sugar yam 401 

Tennessee yam 401 

Yellow yam 401 

Marketing 407 

Privet 35 

Profits of gardening 85 

Propagation of plants.... 186 

By cuttings 203 

By division 186, 197 

By lavering 200 

By roots 200, 210 

By seed 185 

Protoparse Carolina 149, 150 

celcris 150 

Pruning 222 

General principles of. 226, 231 

Implements for 225 

To improve form 227 

Mode of operating 225 

To reduce fruitfulness. . 229 

To renew growth 228 

Summer 224 

Time for 223 

At transplanting 229 

Winter 223 



680 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Prun/us Americana 516 

Armeniaca 483 

angustifolia 516 

cera&ifera 516, 521 

(lamest lea 516, 517 

hortulona 516 

pumila 516 

triflora 516, 521 

Pumpkin 140, 188, 407, 648 

Cashaw 407, 408 

Purslane 188 

Psidium guajava 527 

Oattleianum 527 

lucidum 527 

Punica granatum 630 

Pyracanth 34 

Pyrethrum 184 

Pyrus communis 570 

mains 457 

Quince 117, 144, 147, 631, 649 

Apple shaped 632 

Angers 632 

Chinese 633 

Japan 38 

Orange shaped 632 

Pear shaped 632 

Portugal 632 

Radish 188, 408, 648, 650 

Black Spanish 410 

Black winter 410 

Chartier 410 

Culture 410 

Chinese rose colored 

winter 410 

Early scarlet short top. 410 

French breakfast 410 

White turnip rooted.... 410 

Yellow summer 410 

Marketing 413 

Rampion 188 

Rape 188, 413 

Raspberry 82, 144, 147, 

633, 648, 650 

Colossal 634 

Cuthbert 634, 635 

Fastolf 634 

Franconia 634 

French 634 

Golden queen 634, 636 

Gregg 634, 635 

Orange 634 

Philadelphia 634 

Red Antwerp 634 

Shaffer- colossal 634, 636 

Turner 634, 636 



page. 

White Antwerp 634 

Cultivation 633 

Propagation 633 

Marketing 636 

Raphanus sativus 408 

Rhubarb 188, 414, 648 

Rheum 414 

Ribes nigrum 498 

oxycanthoides 502 

rubrum 498 

Riley, Dr 125 

Rhysopus nigricans 157 

Root cuttings 210 

Rosemary 188, 453 

Rose apple 531 

Rosmarinus officinalis 453 

Rosa laevigata 36 

bracteata 36 

Rotation of crops 80, 111 

Ross, B. B 70 

Rue 188, 453 

Rnbus Canadensis 490 

hloeus 633 

occidentalis 633 

neglectans 636 

strigosus 633 

tririulis 490 

villosus 488 

Rumex 424 

Rumph, S. H 26 

Runners 198 

Rutabaga 132, 188, 648 

Rata grareolens 453 

Sage 188, 453 

Salsify 188, 416, 650 

Salt 112 

Salvia officinalis 453 

selarea 448 

t'annlnu exiriosa 134, 135 

Saperda Candida 116, 117 

Sapodilla 531 

Satureja 418 

Savory, summer and winter, 

188, 418 
Savoy cabbage (see Cabbage.) 

Schizoneura lanigera 114, 115 

Schubler's experiment 646 

Science, what it has done for 

gardening 13 

Scorzonera 188 

Sea kale 418 

Culture 419 

Dwarf German greens.. 419 
Dwarf green curled 
Scotch 419 



INDEX. 



681 



PAGE. 

Early curled Siberian... 419 

Norfolk 419 

Seeds 186 

Maturity and soundness. 186 

Preservation 194 

Time required to germi- 
nate 192 

Time of sowing 188 

Time when sprouting 

(Table) 188, 650 

Vitality 188 

Sesamum orientate 445 

Shaddock 555 

Aurantium 555 

Blood 555 

Forbidden fruit 555 

Hart 555 

Josselyn 555 

Mammoth or orange.... 555 

Pernambuco 555 

Triumph 555 

Walter 555 

Shading 241, 242 

Shallot 188, 422 

Shell bark hickory 540 

Sitotroga cereallela 113 

Sium sisarum 423 

Skirret 188, 423 

Slips 199 

Slingerland, Prof 137 

Smith, E. F 169 

Soda 54, 70, 71 

Soils 39 

Absorptive powers of 

(Table) 646 

Argillaceous 39 

Calcareous 42 

Depth of 43, 49 

Improvement of 45 

Organic 42 

Sandy 40 

Texture of 45, 43 

Solanum melongena var orige- 

rum 337 

tuberosum 395 

Sorrel 188, 424 

Sour sop 531 

Southernwood 454 

Spanish lime 531 

Spearmint 452 

Spinach 28, 82, 188, 425, 648 

Bloomsdale 425 

Lettuce leaved 425 

Long standing 425 

New Zealand 427 

Prickly seeded 425 



PAGE. 

Round leaved 425 

Savoy leaved 425 

Winter 426 

Spinada oleracea 425 

Spondius lutea 531 

Spraying 107, 174 

Spraying calendar 184 

Spray pumps 183 

Squash 120, 126, 140, 

188, 428, 648 

Bell 428 

Boston marrow 428 

Cashaw 428 

Canada crook neck 428 

Culture 429 

Custard marrow 429 

Hubbard 428 

Perfect gem 428 

Summer 428 

Valparaiso 428 

Vegetable marrow 428 

Winter 428 

Marketing 430 

Star apple 531 

Starnes, H. N 26, 506, 508 

Strawberry 28, 82, 132, 

133, 637, 648, 650 

Bederwood 640, 642 

Belmont 642 

Brandy wine 640, 642 

Bubach No. 5 640, 642 

Captain Jack 640, 642 

Cloud 640, 642 

Clyde 642 

Crescent 640, 642 

Cumberland 640, 642 

Downing 640, 642 

Enhance 640, 642 

Enormous 642 

Eureka 640, 642 

Gandy 640, 642, 643, 644 

Greenville 640, 642 

Haverland..640, 642, 643, 644 

Hoffman 640, 642, 644 

Jessie 640, 641, 642 

Lady Thompson 640, 642 

Meek 640. 642 

Michel 640, 642, 644 

Neunan 640, 642 

Parker Earle 640, 642 

Sharpless 640, 642, 644 

Tennessee 642 

Wilson 640, 642, 645 

Cultivation 639 

Propagation 639 



682 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Varieties 640 

Marketing 645 

Subsoil 50 

Suckers 198 

Sugar apple 531 

Sugar corn (see Corn). 

Sulphate of potash 70 

Sulphur 54 

Summer cultivation 250 

Superphosphate of lime 78 

Swamp muck 61 

Sweet potato (see Potato). 
Swiss chard 288 

Taber, G. L 26 

Tables and formulae, useful. 646 

Tag pickers 106 

Tamarind 531 

Tamarindis Jndica 531 

Tankage 71 

Tansy • 188 

Tan bark , 62 

Tanyah 430 

Tarragon 188, 431 

Temperatures, injurious (Ta- 
ble) 650 

Terraces 29 

Tiles 46 

Thyme 188, 431 

Common 431 

Lemon 432 

Tobacco stems 71 

Tomato.... 120, 123, 151, 188, 

432, 648, 650 

Acme 432 

Atlantic prize 432 

Beauty 432 

Buckeye State 432 

Cardinal 432 

Chemin market 432 

Culture 434 

Dwarf champion 432 

Early ruby 432 

Fordhook 432 

Golden queen 432 

Green gage 433 

Ignotum 433 

Lemon- blush 433 

Livingston's beauty .... 433 

Livingston's favorite 433 

Matchless 433 

Mikado 433 

Moore 433 

New peach 433 

Paragon 433 

Perfection 433 



PAGE. 

Ponderosa 433 

Volunteer 433 

Marketing 436 

Tanacetum vulgare 455 

Tetragonia expansa 427 

Thorough wort 446 

Thomas slag 79 

Training 222, 233 

Tragopogon porrifolium 416 

Transplanting 235 

Preparation of soil for.. 235 
Preparation of trees for. 238 

Herbaceous plants 239 

Tree box 38 

Trees, number to acre (Ta- 
ble) 647 

Distance to plant (Table) 6i8 

Trenching 50 

Tropwolum ma jits 377 

minus 377 

Trucking 99 

Trueblood, E. H 603 

Tubers 197 

Turnip 82, 123, 132, 188, 

436, 648, 650 

Culture 438 

Early white flat Dutch.. 436 
Extra early purple Milan 436 

Golden ball 437 

Purple topped Swede 437 

Rutabaga 437 

Skirving's improved 

Swede 437 

Swedes 437 

Sweet German 437 

White globe 436 

Yellow Aberdeen 436 

Marketing 439 

Vaughan Seed Co 26 

Valerianella oliioria 328 

Van Buren, J 21, 24 

Van Slyke, L. L 73 

Vermorel nozzle 178 

Verrucosis of sour orange 

and lemon 173 

Vicia fahfi 274 

Vigna catfang 328 

Vitis tin if era 503 

wstivalis 503 

Bourquiniana 503 

labrusca 503 

rotundifolia 503 

Waddel, J. P 21 



INDEX. 



C83 



TAGE. 

Walnut 542, 648, 650 

Black 543 

Butternut 543 

English 542 

Japan 543 

Madeira 542 

White 543 

Ward, M. A 21 

Watering 241, 243 

Water cress 440 

Watermelon 133, 440, 648 

Arkansas traveller 440 

Boss 440 

Dixie 441 

Florida favorite 441 

Jones 441 

Kolb gem 441 

Lone star 443 

Mclver sugar 441 

Pride of Georgia 443 

Rattlesnake 441 



PAGE. 

Scaly bark 443 

Sugar loaf 443 

Marketing 443 

Watts, R. L 26, 519 

Weeds, most harmful (Table) 656 

Weights and measures 659 

Whale-oil soap solution 184 

Whitewash 646 

White hellebore 184 

Wine 516 

Wood ashes 57 

Wormwood 188, 45$ 

Roman 455 

Yew 38 

Zea maize var anylaca 323 

var everta 323 

var identata 323 

var indurata 323 

var saccharatum 323 

var vaginata '.. 323 



A Wonderful Idea for 
Stock Owners. 



For years observant stock owners have known that sick horses have 
certain ways of acting in certain diseases. If a horse has a certain disease 
he will stand or lie down in a certain peculiar way. If ten thousand horses 
have that disease, probably nine thousand, nine hundred and ninety-nine 
of them will act in the very same manner. They can't talk, and it is their 
only way of making known to us what is the matter with them. Now 
then, if we knew the particular attitude which horses take in the various 
ills to which horse-flesh is heir, we would be able to tell almost as soon as 
we saw a sick horse just what is the matter with him. 

A few years ago an eminent veterinary surgeon went to work to verify 
this theory. Everywhere he went he took his kodak, and whenever he 
saw a sick horse he took a snap-shot at it. Photographs of people do not 
always tell the truth, for photographers have learned how to please their 
customers; but a horse dosn't care whether he makes a pretty picture or 
not, and the photographs taken by this surgeon establish beyond doubt the 
theory on which he was working. When be realized this, he went to 
work to arrange the entire series of pictures in a book in such a manner 
that a man who has a sick horse has only to turn the leaves of the book 
to find the trouble. This great book, 

The Stock Owner's Adviser, 

By C. K. RHODES, V. S., 

Is not only a comprehensive work on the treatment of stock, but it is also 
of the nature of an invention — a wonderful invention, which promises to 
revolutionize the stock world. The idea of such a book is absolutely 
startling. Whenever a horse-lover hears of it he opens his eyes wide in 
utter astonishment. "Wonderful!" he exclaims. "Must have it? Of 
course I must have it. That doctor has got the idea, and I want his book 
quick." 

j& How it Works. -^ 

Suppose you have in your home a copy of The Stock Owner's Ad- 
viser. One day your horse becomes ill. You stand and watch him a few 
moments, and then you go in the house and get your book. And then you 
sit down on a log and watch your horse again. You notice the various 
positions into which he gets. Presently you will notice that while he 
shifts into several positions, there is one position into which he always 



drops back — a position which seems to give him a momentary rest. He 
lingers in this position for awhile, and then drops in several other atti- 
tudes, perhaps in rapid succession; then he comes back to this position 
which gives him rest. This position into which he always drops back — 
the position which seems to give him the most ease — is the prominent 
symptom. Now then, you open your book and turn the leaves in which 
horses are pictured in the various positions into which they get when they 
are ill; you find a horse occupying the same position your own horse is 
occupying be ore you. This picture will refer you to a description of the 
disease of which the prominent symptom is photographed. Then, to be 
sure that you are right, you turn to this description and you find all the 
symptoms fully described, and the prominent symptom (that is, the posi- 
tion into which the horse always drops back, and which gives him the most 
ease) is fully set forth. Now you know that your horse has the disease 
here described, and you have nothing to do but to read the instructions 
concerning the remedy, and go to work. You can cure your horse as well 
as a veterinary surgeon. Like the working of a problem, there is but one 
answer, and when you get the answer you know it. There is hardly a pos- 
sibility of a mistake. 

But this great work does not treat of the horse only. It is a complete 
stock owner's text-book. It describes and offers remedies for the 

Contagious Diseases of Sheep, Cattle, 
Swine, and Dogs. 

There is no question which a man can ask when his horse is 
sick, or when he has just bought a cow, or when his lambs begin 
to gambol on the lawn, or when his hogs refuse to fatten, or when 
he has just come into possession of the best doggy In the world, 
that this book will not answer. 

To buy this book is to invest in a life insurance policy on your stock. 
It is the stock owner's great protection against loss by disease. 

PRICES— Style A. Extra fine cloth, beautiful design stamped in ink, 
more than 130 engravings, $2.50. Style B. Half morocco, fine English 
cloth covering half of each side, leather corners, stamped in gold, marbled 
edges, more than 130 engravings, elegant and substantial, $3.50. Style C. 
F ne leather, $5.00. 

A FORTUNE FOR AGENTS. 

Here is a book that will be wanted in every home where there is a 
horse or a cow or a sheep or a pig or a dog. With our liberal terms a good 
agent should make at least fifty or sixty dollars a week. Men of character 
and ability who want to make money are invited to write us at 
once for full particulars about this great opportunity. 

B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

RICHMOND, VA. 



